Israel's religious system at the time of Christ

Israel at the Time of Christ

In order to understand the life of Jesus, it is important to understand the circumstances in which he grew up. So many times the focus is on Jesus, the God, but his humanity was as critical as his divinity, perhaps even more so because it was his humanity that made his self-sacrifice such a significant factor. Divine, Jesus is universal and can be accessed by anyone, which is a wonderful feature for a deity. "A universalized Jesus, on the other hand, is always in danger of losing the limitations and concreteness of his actual existence; he loses his identification with our lives in the world today. Jesus lived, but he often seemed to live only as a theory in theories about him, rather than in the actual world" (Vogel 1992, p.). However, understanding the life of Jesus, not simply the theory that he was human, but the life that he would have lived, is critical to understanding him.

Many people think of Jesus as a Christian, despite knowing that he was Jewish. They mistakenly believe that he underwent some type of conversion during his lifetime, establishing his church as something different than and separate from Judaism. This is simply not true. "Jesus was thoroughly Jewish. Mary, his mother, was Jewish, and Judaism was the religion he practiced throughout his life. Jesus' teachings focused on the important Jewish issues of the day -- how to interpret the law correctly, when the Kingdom of God would appear, and how to behave righteously. He was executed as the 'King of the Jews,' a political claim that the Roman authorities could not have tolerated. His earliest followers in Jerusalem were Jewish, and they, too, observed Jewish law" (Wilson 2008, p.1). Therefore, in order to understand Jesus and Christianity, one must first understand Judaism, and not simply Judaism, but Judaism as it was practiced in Israel/Palestine during Jesus' lifetime.

Many Christians then turn to the Bible to find out about Judaism during this time. They look to the New Testament (NT) to provide them with historical information about Jerusalem in Jesus's lifetime. The problem with that is that the NT was not an objective historic account; it was written by people who were critical of the Jewish establishment. "The symbols of the NT are fundamentally those of Judaism, to the extent that the first Christian writings can fairly be considered part of first-century Jewish culture. As the literature of a separatist Jewish group, however, the NT's use of these symbols is complex: it appropriates the riches of Judaism wholesale, but in its need to demonstrate its exclusive claim to these symbols, it shows hostility to those Jews who remain unenthusiastic about the sect" (Johnson 2010, p.39). That does not mean that the NT is dishonest about Judaism during that time period, but it certainly suggests that it may omit certain critical details about Judaism during that time period. As a result, the "NT cannot be trusted to provide a fair and accurate picture either of Jews or pagans. It was written by converts seeking to demonstrate the superiority of their new life by contrast to both groups" (Johnson 2010, p.24).

Before explaining Jewish religious behavior during the time of Christ, this paper will explain some of the other facets of life in Palestine during that time period. This background information is very important because the historic practice of Judaism was very different from the practice of most modern religions. "If you lived in first-century Palestine, you lived what today we would almost certainly call a religious life. For a first-century Jew, though, it was just life" (Korb 2011, p.146). Therefore, it is safe to surmise that any factor that impacted a Jew's life interacted with religious life. One cannot understand the Jewish religion without understanding the surrounding context of life during that time period.

Likewise, this explanation will largely focus on Galilee. "Jesus chose Galilee in which to live and to proclaim his message. The fact of this choice makes Galilee unique. In choosing Galilee for his life and ministry, the Incarnate Word entered into the human dialogue with place; he made himself dependent on and limited to the natural elements and cultural values of a specific region" (Hennessey 1994, p.20). However, it is critical to realize that all of Palestine was under foreign rule during that time period; Rome controlled Palestine. Therefore, it may be important to understand the historical, political, and religious events that were impacting Rome during that time in order to truly understand religious life in Palestine during the time of Christ. If this seems like a complex socio-cultural situation to a modern observer, one can only imagine the complexity it added to the lives of Jews who were experiencing it.

The Jews in Palestine were a conquered people. In fact, much of the Old Testament reveals a long history of suffering by the Jewish people, with only intermittent periods of self-rule. Their foreign rules included, but were not limited to Egypt, Syria, Babylon, Persia, Greece, and Rome (Jesus Central 2009). During the time of Christ, the Roman Empire extended over the Middle East, including Palestine. However, there was always an undercurrent of the drive to be self-determining in combat with external influences attempting to strip Jews of their self-determination. This had a cultural impact on the Jews, which was highlighted during Jesus's time period. "Roman control of Jewish institutions and office like the monarchy and the high priesthood together with the economic and cultural dominance of Greek cities and education no doubt suggested to Jews themselves the inferiority of their own social, political, and cultural institutions" (Riches 1990, p.50).

While Rome ruled the area, the Romans established their political dominance by establishing cooperative governments with their conquered areas. As a result, "in the hierarchy of power, the Jewish self-government reported to the authority of the local Roman Government (King Herod), which reported to Rome (Emperor Caesar)" (Jesus Central 2009). As a result, Jews had greater freedom under Rome than they may have had under other governments, even if they did not have full self-determination. The Emperor Augustus had established a pattern of tolerance towards Jews in Rome. "Augustus' personal benevolence towards Jews in Rome was paralleled by Rome's institutional tolerance. Synagogues were viewed as collegia by Roman authorities in the first century B.C.E., yet their position was not altogether like that of other collegia" (Richardson 1998, p.17 ) Even when the other collegia were outlawed as threats to the state, synagogues were exempt, and they retained a special status up through Caesar's reign. (Richardson 1998, p.18).

This was in-line with Roman tradition in any conquered area. "The Roman government practiced syncretism, accepting that all religious beliefs, philosophical teachings, and government systems are ultimately compatible, or a reflection of, a larger system- the Roman system" (Jesus Central 2009). Therefore, Rome could be considered an early proponent of religious freedom, at least insofar as religious beliefs did not threaten the power of Rome. Of course, this meant that Judaism was not the only religion practiced in Israel at the time of Christ. Pagans existed in Jerusalem during the time of Christ, and they were actively worshipping in Rome. King Herod was a pagan and famously had pagan idols installed in the Temple, something which enraged many of the Jews. Unlike the Roman religious tradition, the Jewish religious tradition absolutely prohibited the worshipping of any other god.

However, it would be erroneous to assume that because Rome was somewhat benevolent, Jews were happy to be under foreign control. On the contrary, Jews were very hostile towards Rome, and the hostility flowed both ways. Although Jews were not forbidden to practice their religions, King Herod had called for the massacre of all male Jewish babies to ensure that Rome retained political power in the area (Jesus Central 2009). Although Rome was somewhat lenient towards the Jews, and actually had a practice of engulfing the gods of foreign lands within its own religious traditions, it would be erroneous to assume that foreign control did not impact the religious practice of Judaism. "Prolonged exposure to foreign rule and influence made it difficult for Jews to maintain their traditional way of life, undermined their sovereignty and national identity, made them long for some resolution to their problems, and on occasion brought them into direct and costly conflict with their foreign overlords" (Riches 1990, p.49). This led to some within group fighting among Jews, so that there were arguments about what it meant to be a Jew in that time period.

This infighting was very important to the practice of the religion because of the Jewish world-view. Jews believed themselves to be the chosen people of God. Therefore, it was important to them that Jews and Gentiles be treated as two distinct groups. This remained the scenario throughout Jesus' life. However, there were two main branches of Jews who viewed Judaism very differently: the Pharisees and the Sadducees. The Pharisees could be considered the Orthodox Jews of their time period; they attempted to uphold the Jewish law and traditions passed down by the patriarchs and were, generally, hostile to Rome's control of Palestine. The Sadducees were composed of the upper class of Jews in Palestine, who were willing to turn away from Jewish traditions and extend cooperation to Rome. The conflict between the Pharisees and the Sadducees played a pivotal role in some of the social and cultural disputes that occurred during Christ's lifetime.

The political system of Rome had an economic impact on Jews, which impacted their cultural and religious practices. The differences between the Sadducees and the Pharisees is described above. The Jewish middle class was composed of traders, merchants, and artisans. The lower class was composed primarily of manual laborers and those who were unemployable. Jesus, as a carpenter son and as a teacher, would have been a member of the middle class, but he spent a considerable amount of time among the lower class. However, all members of the population were subject to heavy taxation by Rome, a burden that impacted those with the least wealth more. Furthermore, Jews had financial obligations to the temple, which put an additional monetary burden on them (Jesus Central 2009). The economic system of this time period impacted Jesus' life in two ways. First, as a traveling teacher, Jesus's livelihood would have been dependent upon gifts from people who would come to hear him teach (Jesus Central 2009). In addition, "during the first century, the temple courtyards had often become a marketplace -- local merchants would sell sacrificial animals at excessive cost in order to turn a profit from the tourists or religious seekers that would come to the temple" (Jesus Central 2009). This was a step away from the purity that was dictated by Jewish religious practices, and is typical of the type of profane behavior in the Temple that would later outrage Jesus.

Jewish cultural life was inextricably intertwined with Jewish religious practices. Although Judaism has a matrilineal component, the Jewish family was undoubtedly a patriarchy. The husband was considered to be both the "spiritual and legal head of the house" (Jesus Central 2009). His responsibility was to care for his family, and if he failed to feed, shelter, or protect the family, he not only failed in his social responsibilities, but also in his religious responsibilities (Jesus Central 2009). Children were taught obedience and respect of their parents, and, until married, children often lived in the paternal household. Women did not have the same status as men in society. They were closer to property than to self-determining individuals. Therefore, the fact that women are mentioned among Jesus' followers is noteworthy, "both that they would be allowed to follow him with his disciples, and unusual that the authors of Jesus' biographies would mention their presence at all" (Jesus Central 2009).

Furthermore, because Judaism was a lived religion, the education of young Jews combined secular and religious education into one form of education. Jewish children were taught the Torah and the Mishnah by rabbis, and Jesus was one of these traveling teachers. "For Jews, the "Torah," translated "law" was the source of all learning -- religion, history and ethics. The Torah includes the first five books of the modern Bible (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy)" (Jesus Central 2009). Formal education was limited to males, who began learning basic literacy at age 5 and then start their religious educations at 10 (Jesus Central 2009). Women learned from their mothers in the home. Normally, a man's formal education ended at 18, but some would go on to become scholars, seeking out particular teachers. The scholars who attached themselves to teachers were called disciples, which is why Jesus' early followers were called his disciples (Jesus Central 2009).

The Jewish religion as practiced in first century Palestine had many theoretical and philosophical things in common with modern day Judaism. However, there were also some very substantial differences between Judaism in the time of Christ and modern-day Judaism. "The Judaism of pre-70 times was formally structured in a quite different way from the Judaism of later times. The main religious institution was the Jerusalem temple, and temple worship went back many centuries in Jewish and Israelite history. The temple was not the same as a synagogue. The main activity in the temple was blood sacrifice. There were required sacrifices on a daily, weekly, and monthly basis and also at the major religious festivals" (Grabbe 1995, p.29). This emphasis on sacrifice helps explain why it was so crucial for Jesus to die for the sins of man, and is something that is missing from modern-day Judaism.

One of the main similarities between modern Judaism and first-century Judaism was a monotheistic religion. "Jewish tradition was centered on the Sabbath Day -- the day began on Friday at sundown and ended at Saturday sundown. Sabbath was started with prayer, the lighting of the candles by the wife of the household, followed by a joyful Friday supper. Sabbath was considered to be a day of rest and worship, where everything one did was in honor of God" (Jesus Central 2009). Furthermore, Jews observed a number of holy days. "The major religious holiday during the Jewish year was the Passover feast celebrating the deliverance of the Jewish people from their slavery in Egypt. During the Passover, many Jews would travel to Jerusalem in order to celebrate in the holy city" (Jesus Central 2009). Understanding this Passover tradition is important because it explains why so many Jews, including Jesus and his disciples, were in Jerusalem at the time of the Last Supper and Jesus' trial and execution (Jesus Central 2009).

Furthermore, it is important to understand that Judaism was a complicated religion. First, it was a Messianic religion. The Jewish people were waiting for a Messiah to appear. The promised Messiah was not necessarily going to be an incarnate version of God; he was promised to be someone who would bring them freedom from the tyranny of the oppressors. Christians embraced the idea that Jesus was the Messiah, but it is important to understand that in Palestine during that time period there were many people making claims to be the Messiah. Moreover, not everyone believed that a Messiah was forthcoming. In fact, there were "at least two dozen competing belief systems among Jews in the first century: "Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes, Zealots, followers of John the Baptist, followers of Yeshua of Nazareth (Iesous in Greek, Iesus in Latin, Jesus in English), followers of other charismatic leaders, etc." Each group had a particular way of interpreting the Hebrew scriptures and applying them to the present" (Astle 2011). In many ways, they could be compared to the various denominations in modern Christianity. However, while these groups had differences, there were also similarities. According to Jacob Neusner, there were three approaches to Judaism at the time of Christ: sage, priest, and Messiah (Neusner 1984, p.35). "Jesus represented as a perfect priest, rabbi, Messiah, was one such protean figure. The Talmudic rabbi as Torah incarnate, priest manque, and model of the son of David was another" (Neusner 1984, p.37).