The life of Socrates

Socrates

Self-knowledge is a prerequisite for wisdom. For Socrates, self-knowledge or self-understanding is the precursor of the ability to probe the world outside of the self. In fact, Socratic wisdom is wisdom that is manifest and known. The Socratic process of probing and inquiry is designed specifically to eliminate that which cannot be known or that which is irrelevant to the pursuit of wisdom and understanding. The process of Socratic dialogue is coupled with the process of arguing ad absurdum, until the kernel of truth remaining after the inquiry may be recognized as wisdom. Yet before a person can even begin to explore the universe, the person must explore the self. The exploration of self is not a narcissistic inquiry but rather, an inquiry into the nature of human being. It is important to understand the human experience, the human mind, and human patterns of perception and cognition.

Socrates also understood that self-knowledge must entail humility and an awareness of the limitations of the human mind. Understanding who I am means understanding who I am not. Thus, Socrates "stated that he knew nothing and was ignorant and being aware that he knew nothing and was ignorant is what was said to have made him wise," (Lowe 1).

Socrates's search for wisdom begins with acknowledging the truth about the self, and the irrelevance of mundane knowledge. This is why Socrates denied being knowledgeable, and focused instead on being wise. Wisdom is not about facts, but about the essence that transcends facts, and which stems from pure understanding of human life and experience. During his life, Socrates searched for wisdom by self-abnegating his own knowledge. His perception of the Oracle at Delphi was to value self-knowledge first (hence the "know thyself" adage accompanying the oracle) before the attainment of wisdom is possible. The knowledge attainable in the pursuit of mundane acquisition of facts is nothing compared to a pure understanding of spiritual truth, which emanates from self-awareness.

2. As Miller points out, Socrates was an "awe-inspiring moral figure" but one who reached legendary status. Socrates's morality is a straightforward one based on an internal, wisdom-related sense of knowing right from wrong. Having strong moral convictions is the essence of Socratic wisdom and moral behavior. It is important to develop wisdom, so that a person can intuit the ethical parameters of any situation. The self emerges through conscious choices in any given situation, which is why actions reflect a person's true character.

Kenny claims that Socrates's explication of the daimonion reveals the philosopher's sense of moral decision-making. The Daimonion in this case serves as a moral conscience, and it is directly connected with the spiritual source of all wisdom. The Daimonion can also be called the true reality of the person.

From the font of the Daimonion, wisdom flows forth to inhabit the moral mind. The Daimonion is depicted as a sort of personal god or guardian angel, which allows the self to be connected with the source of moral wisdom. Interestingly, Aristophanes depicts Socrates as an amoral person who acts in essentially self-serving ways (Navia). However, the way Socrates conducted his own moral behavior is exhibited most plainly in the account of his death. Socrates understood that actions are the ultimate manifestation of moral character. He allowed the courts to kill him, so that the Athenians would emerge as the epitome of moral turpitude, whereas the philosopher would remain the "awe-inspiring" philosopher of mind. The Socratic search for wisdom is linked spiritually and practically to the moral dimension of existence.

3. Moral choices are not made in isolation of a greater social universe. All moral choices are dependent on the impact of the choice on other individuals, groups of individuals, or an entire society. Although some moral choices do reflect back on the self and pertain to righteous treatment of the self, no moral choice is completely disconnected from the world.

The search for the self and the true identity is thus framed as an ethical obligation. Without self-knowledge, a person cannot develop moral character. Without moral character, the person cannot act in ethical ways. Unethical actions lead to poor social outcomes. Therefore, poor social outcomes are linked to the personal search for self. Searching for self in a pursuit of wisdom as Socrates undertakes is a joint or collective effort. Each person has an internal pull toward wisdom and therefore also toward moral behavior. When each person follows the impetus to achieve self-awareness, that person participates in the moral enrichment of the entire society.

Philosophy must be understood as a social function. As a social function, philosophy serves as the means by which to improve the moral character and moral behaviors of each individual. The life of Socrates becomes a model for living well within a social universe. Aristophanes viewed Socrates's method of approaching philosophy as a collective endeavor as being a threat to the established hierarchy in Athenian society (Navia). However, Socrates's role was to facilitate the search for wisdom regardless of whether it pleased political authorities. Philosophy is a moral imperative, much more so than maintaining social hierarchies. The natural social order emerges better when each person is self-aware and able to make moral decisions based on wisdom rather than on rules.

4. Language is the primary mode of human companionship. According to Socrates, language is the most fundamental means of interacting in meaningful ways. Whereas nonverbal communications impart emotion and subtext, only language can convey rational thoughts and ideas. Moreover, language functions in a metaphysical manner: as a method of constructing reality. Socrates's reality is socially constructed. Members of a society agree on certain key points that define reality: including laws, social norms, and means of relating with the environment and other people. This reality is not one that people can experience directly, due to the interference of human knowledge that impedes direct knowledge of self. Wisdom gained from self-understanding can be applied in human relationships, which depend on language for their sustenance, maintenance, and growth.

If language is the means by which human beings co-construct reality, then language essentially creates reality. As a generative force, language is also critical to philosophy. The genesis of wisdom begins with language, employed judiciously to philosophical questions. The Socratic tradition implies a series of questions and arguments that help the individual to eventually arrive at the truth. Ethical and moral terms can also be coded in language.

Ironically, though, Navia notes that Socrates is "reported to have had an aversion to written language," (16). Socrates's passion for the spoken word is rooted in his preference for the use of philosophy as a social function. Written language is "dead," unlike verbalizations, which allow for interactivity, engagement, and mutual consensus on philosophical matters (Navia 16).

5. Socratic dialogue is Socrates's primary method of employing language as a philosophical method. A linguistic analysis implies a dialogue about a concept or idea, or a moral term. The search for the ultimate truth of the concept should lead to a moral understanding, and hence, wisdom. Socrates also emphasizes the way linguistic analysis permits the person to reach an understanding without direct instruction. Coming to the realization of the truth with linguistic analysis leads to an epiphany, which cannot be created if the teacher does not engage the student in dialogue. Socrates asks students to define philosophical terms including happiness, virtue, and the good life by using linguistic analysis.

Dialogue with a teacher allows the student to engage with the philosophical concept from a number of different angles. From the discussion and especially from the elimination of incorrect angles, the student can hone in on the right concept or meaning. The teacher does not tell the student what the correct answer is, because to do so would defeat the purpose. By arguing or engaging the student with astute linguistic analysis, the teacher facilitates understanding.

6. The Socratic dialogue or elenchus, is structured as an interrogation. There is a mandatory give-and-take to the learning scenario. The teacher, Socrates, has the student, which is referred to as the interlocutor, respond systematically. The interlocutor "must answer every question according to his own beliefs," (Woodruff). Thus, the interlocutor examines previous understanding of the moral term in order to reveal where the person is coming from and what biases have been held. The interlocutor is then forced to come to the realization of his own ignorance, as it is impossible to reach the final realization with faulty terms. Often, the interlocutor initiates the elenchus by raising a moral term or question to be asked. Socrates helps the interlocutor locate inconsistencies and illogical arguments.

There is no authority in the elenchus. There are no rule books or reference guides. Rather, Socrates helps the interlocutor get rid of the faulty beliefs related to the term. As Woodruff points out, the penultimate ending in the elenchus is the interlocutor's discomfort with his own ignorance. The person is "unable to support his initial statement," and thus must face the reality of ignorance before reaching the point at which the truth can be reached and explored (Woodruff). Language provides the cornerstone of the elenchus, because the interlocutor's argument that he had clung to earlier now seems like utter nonsense. In some cases, Socrates deliberately uses the elenchus to discredit the person, rather than to help the person come to a moral realization. In Plato's accounts, Socrates does this with enemies. However, Socratic dialogue is usually presented in terms that are conducive to philosophical growth.

7. Socrates liked to claim that he was ignorant and knew nothing. The type of ignorance Socrates refers to is especially related to the irrelevance of human facts or learned knowledge. Socrates is certainly not implying that philosophical wisdom is meaningless, but only that learned or acquired facts do not lead to wisdom. The Athenians did not understand the Socratic definition of knowledge, which for Socrates highlighted their own inability to attain self-knowledge and thus, inability to be wise. Socratic learning is learning how to think and not what to think. The purpose and foundation of Socratic dialogue is to lead the person away from authoritative sources of "knowledge" such as "experts" in their chosen field. Instead, the interlocutor discovers the answers in a process of self-inquiry. The process leads to lasting acquisition of wisdom.

8. Wisdom has nothing to do with the acquisition of random facts. Likewise, ignorance has nothing to do with lacking mundane knowledge. Socrates was only concerned with the basis of human understanding, which is the spiritual domain of wisdom that transcends minutia. Morality is linked directly with wisdom, as a person possessing wisdom has the power to make ethical decisions. The person who possesses only knowledge but no wisdom can only make ethical decisions occasionally, and is not empowered to make ethical decisions on the basis of wisdom. Therefore, a person who is ignorant and unwise can be an immoral person. Socrates takes the consequences of ignorance another step, by implying that stupid people (people who lack wisdom) are destined to be unhappy as well as evil. Unhappiness arises from the discomfort of knowing absolutely nothing of worth or value. A person can be filled with an encyclopedia's worth of knowledge and yet lack understanding of the self. That same person might never know the joy of simple wisdom in the apprehension of moral truth. People who shun wisdom in favor of petty knowledge can also spread evil, by teaching people only to follow rules rather than to follow the voice of the Daimonion and its moral truths.