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That is a function of the complex cognitive mechanisms involved in human language processing and speech, which Kormos explicitly acknowledges as possibly the most complex of all human cognitive processes (Levelt, 1995 in Kormos, 2003 p88). Given that characterization, the use of a word span test -- in which performance could quite conceivably measure other variables besides raw working memory, such as parallel recognition and various other associative or pneumonic devices -- instead of a non-word span test likely undermined the validity of the Mota study (2003) results.
Furthermore, the Kormos and Safar study (2008) employed standard objective academic tests of foreign language proficiency, whereas the Mota study (2003) employed a novel matrix of variables (fluency, accuracy, and complexity) to measure foreign language proficiency (Mota, 2003 p69). The former type of diagnostic test would appear to be an appropriately accurate and narrowly targeted measure of memory-based performance and learning in the realm of foreign language acquisition (Kormos & Safar, 2008 p265).
Meanwhile, the latter type of test would seem to introduce multiple extraneous variables in the realm of linguistic abilities much more general than those exclusively dependent on working memory. Particularly in light of the perspective...
Conversely, the Mota study (2003) yielded less concrete or meaningful results capable of multiple explanations, including one very simple explanation that may have completely compromised the relative value of that study. Namely, that individuals with better working memory may simply recall language more efficiently in general, and regardless of either proficiency in foreign languages or the precise role of memory in foreign language acquisition.
References:
Kormos, Judit, and Safar, Anna. "Phonetical short-term memory, working memory and foreign language performance in intensive language learning" Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, Vol. 11, No. 2; 2008: 261-271.
Mota, Mailce Borges. "Working memory capacity and fluency, accuracy, complexity, and lexical density in L2 speech production" Florianopolis, Vol. 24; 2003: 69-104.
Yet the fundamental skills of the game require strictly hands-on learning. Merely learning the rules does not prepare one to actually play the game. The game is learned through repetition of physical movements, for example on the driving range or the putting green. Golf swings are learned by training muscles to behave in a certain way consistently - the book element of that is minimal. The soft skills that one
Linguistics Begley, S. (2009). What's in a word? Newsweek/The Daily Beast. Retrieved online: http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2009/07/08/what-s-in-a-word.html Begley provides a helpful overview of the work of Boroditsky in the field of linguistic relativity. The theory was once lacking empirical grounding, but Boroditsky changed that, to provide scientific proof that language indeed shapes perception and cognition. Boroditsky, L. (n.d.). Linguistic relativity. Retrieved online: http://www-psych.stanford.edu/~lera/papers/linguistic-relativity.pdf Boroditsky's (n.d.) "intermediate paper" provides the foundation for linguistic relativity. The author describes how
Linguistic and Nonlinguistic Causes of why an Individual may have Difficulties in Reading. Linguistic causes of why an individual may have difficulties in reading The causes Auditory language related impairment - some individuals with reading difficulty have deficiency in distinguishing differences in sound. In a similar way, some individuals may have difficulty in detecting tones within noise Visual magnocellular-Deficit hypothesis - impairment in visual processing system may lead some word to seem incoherent and
Students level of skills How students are relating to vocabulary usage Time segments in minutes Notes need help (more than 20% are unable to process) Students are spending more time working independently. Fewer students need assistance from teacher. A somewhat skilled (10-20% need some assistance from teacher) working independently (fewer than 10% need assistance from teacher Learning Styles used Time segments in minutes Notes Verbal/Linguistic Visual/Spatial Body/Kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Musical Naturalistic Student Engagement Indicators - Make notes of overall impression of the lesson: Students Given Choices Give
Using a variety of teaching methods can help integrating the learning of language from one subject to another. One study of bilingual students in Papua New Guinea found that that up to 39% of mathematical errors were language related and another study of bilingual Filipino-English students found that they were better at solving word problems presented in their native language, despite having fluency in both languages in other subjects
Apa.org). Critical thinking input: Good teachers that truly understand how distracted today's young people are (with technology, etc.) learn how to get the most out of students by combining proven strategies of engagement with scholarship challenges that are both entertaining and compelling to their active minds. B.F. Skinner Historical views of transfer. When something is said to you and it reminds you (without you having to conjure up memories) instantly of something from