Management Theories
Historical records show that people always organized themselves in order to work together towards a common objective and they coordinated their efforts to achieve this objective (Accel-Team 2004). It was not until the latter part of the 19th century that the concept of scientific management entered history during the Industrial Revolution, but management skills existed long before the 19th century. Ancient Egyptians built the pyramids, ancient Chinese erected the Great Wall of China, the Mesopotamians irrigated their lands and walled their cities and the Romans of old put up their roads, aqueducts and notably Hadrian's Wall not without established and superb management standards of their leaders (Accel-Team) and massive obedience and coordination among the followers. The pyramids of Egypt, wonders of the world, each measure 75,600 square feet at the base, 480 feet high and consists of more than two million blocks of stone, each weighing 2.5 tons. Its base is a perfect square short only of 7 inches For the ancient Egyptians to have accomplished this marvel without the help of modern technology can only attest to superior management genius already in existence then.
The Chinese philosopher Mencius who lived in 372-289 BC already worked on conceptual models and systems of an early type of production management techniques. He then already identified the advantages of a division of labor, which the ancient Greeks themselves recognized and practiced (Accel-Team). Classic records show that Greek soldiers were trained in the use of weapons and equipment in times of attack and sang work songs in order to reduce fatigue and enhance productivity. The Greeks, however, viewed work as something undignified and, therefore, avoided it as much as possible, placing their attention instead on the arts, philosophy and warfare (Accel-team). The wealthy acquired slaves to do the demeaning work for them, hence the flourishing of slavery. This aversion towards work persisted through the fall of the Roman Empire and when development was dented, feudalism replaced slavery. Work in those early times was considered a penalty for sin beginning from Adam and Eve, a view shared by the pre-Reformation Christians in Europe.
But it was essentially only when Heinrich von Wych of France invented the mechanical clock in 1370 and Guttenberg invented the first printing press the true developments in scientific management evolved (Accel-team). The mechanical clock measured the amount of work turned out, and the first printing press enabled visual indirect communication. Guttenberg also hinted that creative thinkig could be taken as a method study. In 1436, a Spanish visitor at the Arsenal of Venice noted an entire production line, including the cardage, the ballistics and mortars, with men in oars equipped from end to end and ten fully armed galleys emerging between 3 and 9 o'clock (Accel-team). The arsenal used standard parts, the bows of the warships had all types of arrows and hard parts to respond to all types of rudders and rigging. The deck parts were also interchangeable in what appeared to be an early version of waste control (Accel-team). This observation was made approximately 500 years before Henry Ford and his phenomenal Model-T. The productivity level of manufacturing of galleys implied some work measurement and method study before facilities could be established. They also gave clues to a concerted effort at improving that productivity quite likely in order to reduce costs, become competitive, and/or to protect or remain competitive (Accel-team).
The construction of monastery stonework also evidences the orderly work style by the monks in the 15th century as to standards of time, quality and output (Accel-team 2004). Attitude towards work, in the meantime, changed during the Reformation period when Martin Luther introduced a new belief in glorified work. Calvinism reinforced the new ethic by infusing the virtues of thrift and the honorable acquisition of wealth. Thus, the unpleasant view of work was reversed as a dignified activity and idleness as something to deplore (Accel-team). The Industrial Revolution brought in large-scale business and the need for professional managers, which was filled by the military and church organizations at that time.
The Classical school of management thought appeared in and dominated the first decades of the 1900s (Allen 1998). It focused on efficiency and included the bureaucratic, scientific and administrative management styles. The bureaucratic style relied on a set of rational structuring guidelines, such as rules and procedures, organizational hierarchy and a distinct division of labor. The scientific management style, on the other hand, focused on the best way of performing tasks. And the administrative management style placed emphasis on information flow in organizational operations (Allen). In those years, Max...
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