¶ … manifestations of types of traumatic brain injury (focal, diffuse) and hemorrhage (epidural, subdural, subarachnoid)? Focal TBI occurs as a result of some mechanical force acting on the skull (and hence the brain) or penetrating injury to the brain. The manifestations of focal TBI will depend on the particular area of the brain that is damaged (Granacher, 2007). For example, damage to the posterior portion of the left frontal lobe will typically result in problems with expressive language and executive functions, whereas damage to the posterior portion of the left temporal lobe is more likely to result in receptive language problems, naming problems, and problems with verbal memory (Granacher, 2007).

The manifestations of diffuse TBI can be quite varied such is the case of the diffuse axonal injury caused by sharing of the axons in the brain. These can range from global effects on cognition, movement, sensation and perception, to more specific problems associated with memory, attention, executive functions, and orientation. The effects of TBI can be quite variable depending on the force involved in the extent of the damage (Granacher, 2007).

Epidural hemorrhage occurs outside of the brain (between the dura matter and the skull; Granacher, 2007). Until there is significant pressure on the brain there may not be any symptoms at all; however, symptoms typically are contralateral muscle weakness, contralateral loss of vision, and dilated pupils with a downward gaze opposite side of the hemorrhage. Subdural hemorrhage involves bleeding between the dura and arachnoid matter and typically manifests itself related to the area of the brain the hemorrhage pressures. Depending on the rate of blood collection the symptoms can take weeks to appear or can appear very rapidly (Granacher, 2007). Subarachnoid hemorrhage occurs between the pia and arachnoid leaders and symptoms typically include headache, dizziness, and double vision or visual loss.

2. Discuss the occurrence and causes of seizure disorders in childhood, with a focus on differential manifestations and treatments.

The most common causes seizures in children are febrile seizures, seizures associated with an elevation in body temperature. The vast majority of these are believed to be harmless and not treated unless they are focal (manifest on one side of the brain and result in focal symptoms), prolonged (last longer than 5 minutes), or recur after 24 hours (Engel, 2013). Only a very small percentage of children who experience febrile seizures go on to develop childhood epilepsy.
One of the most common causes of seizure disorders in children worldwide is neurocystircercosis which is caused by the infestation of the pork tapeworm larva, Taenia solium. The drugs albendazole and praziquantel are used extensively to treat neurocysticercosis; however, preventive health measures are the best way to manage this disease. This disease is less prevalent in industrialized nations (Engel, 2013).

Other common causes of seizures in children include infection such as meningitis, TBI, malformations of the brain, brain tumors, and genetic disorders (Engel, 2013). Seizures occurring as a result of infections are often generalized, whereas seizures that occur as a result of trauma, brain malformations, or genetic disorders can be either generalized or focal. The specific treatment will depend on the cause of the seizure, the type of seizure that needs to be treated, the child's medical history, the child's age, and potential interactions with other medications that the child must take (Engel, 2013). Treatment for seizure disorders in children such as epilepsy, seizures due to brain trauma, etc. typically consist of anticonvulsant medications combined with behavior and family interventions.

3. Compare and contrast two different central nervous system tumors commonly found in children.

More than 60% of the brain tumors and occur in children are located in the posterior fossa (cerebellum, brainstem, and the fourth ventricle; Ris & Abbey, 2010). About 20% of all brain tumors occurring in…