¶ … Mind and Human Behavior Define and discuss a particular theory of consciousness

Consciousness can be best grasped in context as a facet of an interactive wakeful state wherein most cognitive processing occurs non-consciously. However, on combining non-conscious and conscious processing in the wakeful state, how can we differentiate one from the other, how can consciousness be defined, and what purpose does it serve? The conclusions drawn with respect to the former question critically influence how the latter question is answered. What property makes a state non-conscious rather than conscious? This section will support the argument that, out of all possible answers commonly put forth (i.e., accessibility, intentionality, reflexivity, subjectivity), the element-- reflexive, auto noetic-consciousness -- is the only one observed solely in the state of consciousness (Peters, 2013).

The Quantum Theory of Consciousness

The consciousness issue has opposed traditional approaches, in which the human brain is perceived as a computer having synapses and neurons, functioning as bit states. The following perplexing issues, in particular, are still unsolved: (1) conscious experience's nature (conscious experience is also termed as inner life or qualia), (2) combining of dissimilar processes of the brain into unified objects, concepts, and self-image (3) switch from pre-consciousness to consciousness (4) subjective time flow, (5) non-locality, and (6) intuitive, non-algorithmic processes or free will (Hameroff, Craddock & Tuszynski, 2014).

Traditional neuron-level computational theories indicate that qualia arise at some critical complexity level. It is suggested that temporal synchrony (clear 40 Hertz oscillations, for instance) explains binding; however, when there is no awareness of conscious experience's nature, temporal synchrony proves to be only correlative, and not descriptive. The issue that, probably, is most likely manageable is the shift into consciousness, from pre-consciousness. It has been widely accepted that the major share of human brain processes have a non-conscious nature and that, in fact, consciousness represents a very small part of the brain's activity. Consciousness, however, doesn't reside in any distinct area of the brain. Neural brain activity in any particular region can be conscious at one instant, and non-conscious the next. According to the classical idea, what brings about this conscious-non conscious switch is a critical complexity level; once again, there isn't any threshold, testable prediction, or biological correlate that has been presented. The traditional approaches, apart from refuting the existence of free will, non-locality and subjective flow of time, do not pay any serious attention to these aspects (Hameroff et al., 2014).

Scientists, motivated by quantum theoretical techniques' application to brain studies (and that of other human biological structures), started investigating the functioning of the human brain from the point-of-view of microscopic quantum physics. Umezawa and Ricciardi are credited with making the foremost endeavor to explain the human brain, in the year 1967, by means of quantum-physical terminology. On the basis of their examination of human brain activity, the researchers suggested that one might view the brain as a system, spatially-distributed and arranged, by external, environmental stimuli, in certain quantum states. Hence, using this perspective, one can consider information coded into one's brain as meta-stable excited states that represent short-range memory. Subsequently, the code would be moved to the system's ground state via condensation; Bose-Einstein condensation explains long-term memory and learning.

Umezawa and Ricciardi's theory suggests that functions of the brain are representations of unplanned symmetry that break into the brain's dynamics, controlled by long-term associations. This theory, which links brain function (particularly, memory) and quantum states on the macroscopic level, was extended later on to suggest that our brain constitutes an integrated physical system. This version of the theory regards the human brain as comprising two separate interacting portions: the first comprises the brain neurons' classical electrochemical connections, while the other represents macroscopic-level quantum state in charge of creating and maintaining molecular-level memory (Hameroff et al., 2014).

Penrose, in a 1994 study, explored the link of consciousness with modern physics through a sensational demonstration comprising Godel's theorem, Turing machines, quantum and classical mechanics, chaos, relativity, thermodynamics, cosmology, brain neurophysiology, quantum gravity, and quasi-crystals. He used the discipline of mathematics to link the artificial computer domain with the natural physical one. Penrose demonstrated the non-algorithmic nature of our consciousness by employing the incompleteness theorem of Godel; using this as groundwork, he asserted that brain function's physical theories aren't complete because of reliance on calculable algorithm. Furthermore, he theorized that an integral role is played by quantum effects in comprehending human consciousness, as they enable the human brain to carry out non-calculable operations. While explicating the required new physics for describing consciousness...

This gave rise to the idea that neuronal microtubules provide structures to the brain that can orchestrate wave function's collapse through quantum data processing; the name given to this union is Penrose -- Hameroff Orch OR (Orchestrated Objective Reduction) theory (Hameroff & Penrose, 2014).
Where consciousness arises/occurs from within the brain

The central concept is that the microtubules that reside within neurons in the brain play the role of quantum computers; tubulins or protein subunits in the microtubules reside transitorily as qubits or quantum bits (i.e., in superposition of multiple states). As per Orch OR, the qubits of tubulin (in the state of quantum superposition) run together with other tubulins that are super positioned, in the lattices of microtubules (Rosa & Faber, 2004) via non-local quantum entangling, ultimately collapsing or reducing to certain classical states of tubulin after a span of around 25 milliseconds (say, at 40 Hertz). Quantum state collapse generates volitional choices and conscious opinion that subsequently control the actions of neurons. This, in fact, also forms the key basis for quantum data processing in the technological field, with the exception that the qubits defined by Penrose denote tubulin protein structures, and collapse/reduction transpires because of a given objective threshold (or objective reduction), instead of environmental interaction. Further, objective reduction forms the key to the quantum model's measurement issue; the quantum theory believes quantum state superposition to be a disjunction in fundamental reality at the Planck-scale level, which is the most elementary level (Hameroff & Penrose, 2014).

The aforementioned solution entails an explanation of LQG (or loop quantum gravity); LQG establishes that super positions of wave function are oppositely-directed curvatures in the space-time continuum, and therefore, a disjunction in basic space-time geometry. The separations are regarded as unstable, reducing to a lone space-time curvature after reaching objective threshold. This model regards any conscious experience as quantum data processing that comes to a close through objective reduction. The brain's biological conditions (which include synaptic activity) are believed to have an influence on quantum data processing, thereby coordinating qubit collapse and causing a conscious experience. Orch OR endeavors to position consciousness as a basic scientific concept within empirical sciences (Vaziri & Plenio, 2010).

Orch OR theory's key postulate is that consciousness's place of action resides in the microtubules of the brain that function at the boundary between quantum gravity and classical neurophysiology. These claims are rather bold and have garnered both loud criticism and keen support among scientists. However, Orch OR's stable force of attraction for a strong support base across philosophy, science, and beyond, testifies to its creative influence (Hameroff & Penrose, 2014; Rosa & Faber, 2004).

Classical theories still, largely, fail to explain the numerous, earlier-mentioned, puzzling facets of consciousness. Quantum models' seeming ability to resolve these issues may present fresh avenues of research into the subject of consciousness. Macroscopic quantum events like laser action, super conductivity, and super fluidity are known to occur at rather high temperatures (though requiring extreme fine-tuning of conditions). It is also a fact that classical theories cannot explain such phenomena; rather, they necessitate the macroscopic-level quantum coherence concept in a condensate (Rosa & Faber, 2004; Hameroff & Penrose, 2014).

Part 2

How would you describe ones motivation in terms of the behavioral, cognitive, socio-culture, and humanistic perspectives of learning?

Motivation entails processes which boost, guide, and maintain behavior. The focus of the behavioral learning perspective is external punishment and rewards as a means to determine student motivation. It is proposed by behaviorism that motivation stems from efficient behavioral reinforcers. Those opposed to the behavioral perspective argue that these elements that are meant to reinforce a certain behavior detract from basic motivation, resulting in learners concentrating more on reinforcers than on learning. However, reinforcers may prove successful if work quality is their basis, and if they convey growing competence (Guay, Chanal, Ratelle, Marsh, Larose & Boivin, 2010).

The focus of the humanistic approach is personal growth ability of students, the liberty they have to independently decide their destiny, and their positive traits. Humanistic motivation concepts deal with individual students in their entirety, exploring the correlations among physical, intellectual, aesthetic, and emotional needs. A caring teacher-pupil relationship and a positive school room atmosphere are vital to cultivating motivation in students. Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which starts with physiological needs (at the hierarchy's base), followed by safety, love/belonging and self-esteem needs, and…