Mind and Human Behavior Theories

¶ … Mind and Human Behavior

Define and discuss a particular theory of consciousness

Consciousness can be best grasped in context as a facet of an interactive wakeful state wherein most cognitive processing occurs non-consciously. However, on combining non-conscious and conscious processing in the wakeful state, how can we differentiate one from the other, how can consciousness be defined, and what purpose does it serve? The conclusions drawn with respect to the former question critically influence how the latter question is answered. What property makes a state non-conscious rather than conscious? This section will support the argument that, out of all possible answers commonly put forth (i.e., accessibility, intentionality, reflexivity, subjectivity), the element-- reflexive, auto noetic-consciousness -- is the only one observed solely in the state of consciousness (Peters, 2013).

The Quantum Theory of Consciousness

The consciousness issue has opposed traditional approaches, in which the human brain is perceived as a computer having synapses and neurons, functioning as bit states. The following perplexing issues, in particular, are still unsolved: (1) conscious experience's nature (conscious experience is also termed as inner life or qualia), (2) combining of dissimilar processes of the brain into unified objects, concepts, and self-image (3) switch from pre-consciousness to consciousness (4) subjective time flow, (5) non-locality, and (6) intuitive, non-algorithmic processes or free will (Hameroff, Craddock & Tuszynski, 2014).

Traditional neuron-level computational theories indicate that qualia arise at some critical complexity level. It is suggested that temporal synchrony (clear 40 Hertz oscillations, for instance) explains binding; however, when there is no awareness of conscious experience's nature, temporal synchrony proves to be only correlative, and not descriptive. The issue that, probably, is most likely manageable is the shift into consciousness, from pre-consciousness. It has been widely accepted that the major share of human brain processes have a non-conscious nature and that, in fact, consciousness represents a very small part of the brain's activity. Consciousness, however, doesn't reside in any distinct area of the brain. Neural brain activity in any particular region can be conscious at one instant, and non-conscious the next. According to the classical idea, what brings about this conscious-non conscious switch is a critical complexity level; once again, there isn't any threshold, testable prediction, or biological correlate that has been presented. The traditional approaches, apart from refuting the existence of free will, non-locality and subjective flow of time, do not pay any serious attention to these aspects (Hameroff et al., 2014).

Scientists, motivated by quantum theoretical techniques' application to brain studies (and that of other human biological structures), started investigating the functioning of the human brain from the point-of-view of microscopic quantum physics. Umezawa and Ricciardi are credited with making the foremost endeavor to explain the human brain, in the year 1967, by means of quantum-physical terminology. On the basis of their examination of human brain activity, the researchers suggested that one might view the brain as a system, spatially-distributed and arranged, by external, environmental stimuli, in certain quantum states. Hence, using this perspective, one can consider information coded into one's brain as meta-stable excited states that represent short-range memory. Subsequently, the code would be moved to the system's ground state via condensation; Bose-Einstein condensation explains long-term memory and learning.

Umezawa and Ricciardi's theory suggests that functions of the brain are representations of unplanned symmetry that break into the brain's dynamics, controlled by long-term associations. This theory, which links brain function (particularly, memory) and quantum states on the macroscopic level, was extended later on to suggest that our brain constitutes an integrated physical system. This version of the theory regards the human brain as comprising two separate interacting portions: the first comprises the brain neurons' classical electrochemical connections, while the other represents macroscopic-level quantum state in charge of creating and maintaining molecular-level memory (Hameroff et al., 2014).

Penrose, in a 1994 study, explored the link of consciousness with modern physics through a sensational demonstration comprising Godel's theorem, Turing machines, quantum and classical mechanics, chaos, relativity, thermodynamics, cosmology, brain neurophysiology, quantum gravity, and quasi-crystals. He used the discipline of mathematics to link the artificial computer domain with the natural physical one. Penrose demonstrated the non-algorithmic nature of our consciousness by employing the incompleteness theorem of Godel; using this as groundwork, he asserted that brain function's physical theories aren't complete because of reliance on calculable algorithm. Furthermore, he theorized that an integral role is played by quantum effects in comprehending human consciousness, as they enable the human brain to carry out non-calculable operations. While explicating the required new physics for describing consciousness and the human mind, Penrose explored the divide between quantum and classical physics (and in particular, the issue of measurement), and linked wave function's collapse to conscious phenomena through the use of the objective reduction idea. This gave rise to the idea that neuronal microtubules provide structures to the brain that can orchestrate wave function's collapse through quantum data processing; the name given to this union is Penrose -- Hameroff Orch OR (Orchestrated Objective Reduction) theory (Hameroff & Penrose, 2014).

Where consciousness arises/occurs from within the brain

The central concept is that the microtubules that reside within neurons in the brain play the role of quantum computers; tubulins or protein subunits in the microtubules reside transitorily as qubits or quantum bits (i.e., in superposition of multiple states). As per Orch OR, the qubits of tubulin (in the state of quantum superposition) run together with other tubulins that are super positioned, in the lattices of microtubules (Rosa & Faber, 2004) via non-local quantum entangling, ultimately collapsing or reducing to certain classical states of tubulin after a span of around 25 milliseconds (say, at 40 Hertz). Quantum state collapse generates volitional choices and conscious opinion that subsequently control the actions of neurons. This, in fact, also forms the key basis for quantum data processing in the technological field, with the exception that the qubits defined by Penrose denote tubulin protein structures, and collapse/reduction transpires because of a given objective threshold (or objective reduction), instead of environmental interaction. Further, objective reduction forms the key to the quantum model's measurement issue; the quantum theory believes quantum state superposition to be a disjunction in fundamental reality at the Planck-scale level, which is the most elementary level (Hameroff & Penrose, 2014).

The aforementioned solution entails an explanation of LQG (or loop quantum gravity); LQG establishes that super positions of wave function are oppositely-directed curvatures in the space-time continuum, and therefore, a disjunction in basic space-time geometry. The separations are regarded as unstable, reducing to a lone space-time curvature after reaching objective threshold. This model regards any conscious experience as quantum data processing that comes to a close through objective reduction. The brain's biological conditions (which include synaptic activity) are believed to have an influence on quantum data processing, thereby coordinating qubit collapse and causing a conscious experience. Orch OR endeavors to position consciousness as a basic scientific concept within empirical sciences (Vaziri & Plenio, 2010).

Orch OR theory's key postulate is that consciousness's place of action resides in the microtubules of the brain that function at the boundary between quantum gravity and classical neurophysiology. These claims are rather bold and have garnered both loud criticism and keen support among scientists. However, Orch OR's stable force of attraction for a strong support base across philosophy, science, and beyond, testifies to its creative influence (Hameroff & Penrose, 2014; Rosa & Faber, 2004).

Classical theories still, largely, fail to explain the numerous, earlier-mentioned, puzzling facets of consciousness. Quantum models' seeming ability to resolve these issues may present fresh avenues of research into the subject of consciousness. Macroscopic quantum events like laser action, super conductivity, and super fluidity are known to occur at rather high temperatures (though requiring extreme fine-tuning of conditions). It is also a fact that classical theories cannot explain such phenomena; rather, they necessitate the macroscopic-level quantum coherence concept in a condensate (Rosa & Faber, 2004; Hameroff & Penrose, 2014).

Part 2

How would you describe ones motivation in terms of the behavioral, cognitive, socio-culture, and humanistic perspectives of learning?

Motivation entails processes which boost, guide, and maintain behavior. The focus of the behavioral learning perspective is external punishment and rewards as a means to determine student motivation. It is proposed by behaviorism that motivation stems from efficient behavioral reinforcers. Those opposed to the behavioral perspective argue that these elements that are meant to reinforce a certain behavior detract from basic motivation, resulting in learners concentrating more on reinforcers than on learning. However, reinforcers may prove successful if work quality is their basis, and if they convey growing competence (Guay, Chanal, Ratelle, Marsh, Larose & Boivin, 2010).

The focus of the humanistic approach is personal growth ability of students, the liberty they have to independently decide their destiny, and their positive traits. Humanistic motivation concepts deal with individual students in their entirety, exploring the correlations among physical, intellectual, aesthetic, and emotional needs. A caring teacher-pupil relationship and a positive school room atmosphere are vital to cultivating motivation in students. Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which starts with physiological needs (at the hierarchy's base), followed by safety, love/belonging and self-esteem needs, and ends with self-actualization (i.e., aesthetic and intellectual) needs, exhibits the "whole individual" -- the center of the humanistic approach. The hierarchy demonstrates gaps in individual needs' relative strengths. A lower-level need in Maslow's hierarchy is stronger, as its activation (e.g., a situation that threatens one's safety or intense hunger) will cause people to cease their attempt at satisfying a need that is higher in the hierarchy (e.g. self-actualization or esteem) and concentrate on meeting the lower-level need triggered. Usually, the four lower needs (survival, safety, love and belongingness, and self-esteem) are called 'deficiency needs' as they drive individuals towards acting only if they aren't satisfied to a certain degree. In contrast, self-actualization is normally termed as a 'growth need' as individuals are perpetually striving to meet it. Self-actualization essentially denotes a self-fulfillment need (i.e., developing all potential skills and abilities one possesses) (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2007; Guay et al., 2010).

The cognitive approach places emphasis on student attributions, their competence motivation, i.e., their internal drive towards achievement, and their conviction that they are capable of successfully controlling their corresponding environments. Cognitive motivational theories concentrate on students' expectations, beliefs, and necessity for understanding and order. According to expectancy value theory, motivation hinges on how successful an individual anticipates oneself to be, times how much they value success. An individual's belief regarding personal ability to accomplish a given task (i.e., self-efficacy) affects his/her perseverance and inclination to take on challenges. Students will bring various goals, such as learning goals, social goals, and performance goals, into their classroom. Task value can be considerably enhanced by setting goals. Good goals are reasonably demanding, near-term and explicitly-stated. Goals that are learning-focused bring about higher achievement and a more sustained drive than those that stress performance. Students having an 'incremental' attitude towards their ability will be more inclined to establish goals focused on learning, while those viewing ability through an 'entity' perspective will more likely establish performance-centered goals. The assumption in attribution theory is that students have an inborn need to be able to understand personal failures and achievements. Attributions or common explanations include: ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck. Lastly, self-determination model's assumption is that the necessity for control, relatedness, and competence are inherent in individuals. Thus, students' perception of independence and control can be enhanced by making expectations attainable and clear-cut, employing personalized, high-quality examples, student engagement, and according them choices (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002).

The focus of the social approach is a need for relatedness or affiliation, involving institution, maintenance, and restoration of close, warm, and personal relationships. Self-worth theory postulates that society greatly values the ability of achieving; individuals' self-respect is closely related to how they perceive personal ability. Some students procrastinate, participate in self-handicapping activities, and lay blame on others for protecting their opinion of high personal ability. Performance is negatively affected by anxiety, chiefly because the latter fills up spaces in the working memory with thoughts concerning failure and its repercussions. Studies reveal that one among the key issues for students who are test-anxious is their inability to properly understand the matter to begin with. Better understanding reduces chances of failure, which successively lowers fear of bad performance (Pintrich, 2003; Guay et al., 2010).

Are there situations in which you were highly motivated to accomplish a task?

Yes. Motivation to performing a task because it is inherently enjoyable and interesting is termed as intrinsic motivation; here, an element of choice exists. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation represents motivation to take part in any task out of necessity. A student may simultaneously exhibit high/low levels of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation; he/she may also display low extrinsic motivation and high intrinsic motivation, and vice versa. The motivational type experienced by students is also dependent on their context. Further, motivations may alter with time. Intrinsic motivation drivers include: curiosity, challenge, fantasy, aesthetic value, and control (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002).

Which theory was most applicable to the motivation you felt to complete that task?

Job satisfaction has five strong determinants, namely: work, achievement, advancement, responsibility and recognition. Out of these, work, advancement, and responsibility are the most crucial in effecting long-term attitude changes. One point that must be borne in mind is that, in this context, recognition implies being recognized for one's achievement rather than in the HR sense (Cerasoli & Ford, 2014).

Intrinsic motivation, from a theoretic approach, defines the inherent inclination to engage in interesting activities that foster development, challenge one's abilities, and ought to be positively associated with performance. Individuals solve crosswords and fit puzzles together, as taking on a challenging task and emerging successful provides a certain amount of satisfaction. Behaviors that have intrinsic drivers are brought about and sustained owing to the fact that the enjoyment they impart causes behavior reinforcement (Lavigne, Hauw, Vallerand, Brunel, Blanchard, Cadoretta & Angot, 2009). Prior studies have supported performance's linkage with intrinsic motivation. Students who are intrinsically driven produce higher task persistence levels and display greater propensity toward behaviors like remaining at school and promptly attending class. They also typically have higher persistence and self-confidence levels, causing them to apply deeper learning behaviors, which have proven to be predictors of higher scores in examinations (Lavigne et al., 2009). New meta-analytic research, as expected, backs the super position that intrinsic motivation is positively related to concurrent as well as subsequent performance.

Goal orientations outline how people formulate, concentrate on, and tackle performance situations. In broad terms, it is defined as a desire for developing, acquiring, or demonstrating skill at any task (Lavigne et al., 2009). Achievement goals imply the basic reason behind participating in the activity, in addition to later cognition, affect, and behavior to achieve a task goal. There has to be a positive linkage between learning goal orientations and performance behaviors. Those who are learning-oriented take part in scholastic performance behaviors owing to the longing to attain mastery over tasks and develop competence. They aren't content with just meeting criterion; rather, in the view of Cerasoli and Ford (2014), such students aim to acquire an in-depth, thorough understanding of academic matter. Consequently, they typically demonstrate preference for tasks that challenge them, don't easily give up when they fail, are more positive with regard to learning, and enjoy tasks more. The above attitudes make them dedicated to skill-enhancing performance behaviors (Cerasoli & Ford, 2014). Thus, the most appropriate theory in performing this task is the humanistic approach.

Part 3

Discuss how cognitive mapping affects the understanding of memory.

Knowledge's mental representation has long been debated by researchers. Propositional theory, dual-coding theory and imagery theory are some of the first models that sprang from this debate. Related studies further indicate that information-encoding processes like path- and landmark-based learning can also impact these representations. These theories can act as a launch pad for cartographers to start delving into spatial knowledge's mental representations (Anderson, 1990).

Propositional Theory

A non-concrete, theoretical structure, which conveys inter-object relationships, is called a proposition. Propositions need to fulfill three fundamental criteria: they should be abstract, they should have some truth value attached, and should observe certain formation rules (Anderson 1990). Usually, propositions are approximated through the use of simple sentences; however, these structures aren't essentially of a linguistic nature. One may also represent concepts lacking verbal labels in this manner. Understanding that propositions aren't encoders of the real physical properties of data, but only non-concrete meaning is the main idea behind this theory. Consequently, propositional theory assumes a stance against believing imagery to be a theoretically sufficient or qualitatively distinct kind of mental illustration (Kosslyn and Pomerantz 1977).

Imagery Theory

Those who advocate for imagery theory rather than the aforementioned propositional approach (Kosslyn and Pomerantz, 1977) regard the image as an element vital to spatial cognition. The theory is founded on a picture (i.e., visual) metaphor, however, images and pictures aren't considered equivalent in imagery theory. Rather, the theory puts forth that the process of perception accepts raw spatial data and converts it to a more organized and simpler format. After reorganization, the data is directed to the memory for storage; it may be reassembled when required for creating quasi-pictorial images. Subsequently, mental images and perceptions aren't equivalent --however, the theory maintains that both concepts do have the same format, different from that of non-visual depictions (Kosslyn and Pomerantz 1977). The reason for cartographers' interest in imagery theory is that it suggests cartographic maps might be functionally equal to a person's cognitive map.

Dual-Coding Theory

This theory, put forth in the year 1991 by Paivio, maintains that visual and verbal data are separately processed, though there is an interconnection between systems that process both these information types. Under this theory, simplified images are organized by the imagery system into a tiered structure; information output is in spatial format. Every non-visual piece of information is processed by a corresponding verbal system; here, information is organized into a sequential structure of higher order. The link between systems isn't regarded as representing one-on-one correspondence; rather, the systems are considered to be partly interconnected (Paivio, 1991). For instance, a map primarily activates the imagery system, followed by verbal system activation. In contrast, there would be a reverse effect when directions are verbally relayed. A similar idea has been suggested by Anderson (1990), and newer studies also back this position. Anderson's findings suggested that long-term memory has two kinds of representations for generating images, namely: propositional and literal (Nelson, 1996).