Leadership and theoretical foundations in public administration

Public Administration Mind Map

PA concepts decision-making, communication, public relations, supervision, coordination, unity of command, authority, leadership,

Theoretical Perspectives: modern theories:

behavioral approach of individual and organizational goals; social-psychological theory X and Y of McGregor; comparative PA by Riggs; developmental administration by Weidner; new PA by Minnowbrook.

Historical context

PA as a discipline began at the end of the

th century, with basis from different administrative perspectives from philosophy, economic, behavioral, political, and social of the early 1800s.

Selected PA Concept leadership, which is the ability to direct and organize human effort towards the achievement of specific objectives.

Ethical implications:

integrity, human understanding, intelligence, personal honesty, courage, and ability to communicate

PA practices:

identification of the most successful initiatives to address important issues; learning of that which does not and does work for each situation; inspiring in decision-making.

Basic Public administration: management of public affairs to achieve common goals.

Basic Public administration: management of public affairs to achieve common goals.

Basic Public administration: management of public affairs to achieve common goals.

PA Concerns a learning experience; shared understanding of social complexities; implementation capability; policy sensitivity; promotion of publicness.

Leadership

functional elements

-- planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting.

Leadership principles

-- division of work, authority, discipline, unity of command, unity of direction, scalar chain, centralization, order, equity

Public Administration Leadership

- a formal structural arrangement where work is divided, defined, arranged, and coordinated.

PA leadership

-- non-political and technical organization meant to realize policies with efficiency and economy towards productivity.

The mind map identified that public administration is a varied and multi-disciplinary area that is continually evolving. The map identifies key corner stone of different definitions, historical developments, concepts, practices, theories and aspects of public administration. The map reveals that the definition of public administration is under the influence of government activity and historical context that began in the late 17th century with the rise of the modern state. Under this political system, public administration concerns itself with the management of human affairs in public laws, state functions, and public welfare considerations. Therefore, this leads the map to define public administration as "the management of public affairs to achieve common goals." Three oval shapes with different shades and boarders represent public administration, as a dynamic concept that is continually evolving. Public administration is dynamic since it is a science, an art and a philosophy, which is in many institutional set ups like business, healthcare, and education among others. The artistic, scientific, and philosophical dynamics of public administration are the results of the different approaches, which are a reflection of its practices, concerns, and concepts. It is dynamic since it has different approaches, which have their foundations on the historical context of public administration.

Historical approaches include political theory of public administration postulated by Woodrow Wilson, public policy, classical approach of Gulick and Urwick, classical approach, scientific management of Taylor, Weber's bureaucracy and mayo's human relations approach. These approaches show the historical revolution of the modern public administration under the influence of political, law, economics, and social ideologies of each period. These are important as the form the basis of modern public administrations and are the source of the current theories. The study identifies that public administration is evolving from the historical approaches under the current theories. These include the behavioral approaches of Simon Herbert, Argyis's individual and organizational goals, and Maslow's hierarchy of needs. This also includes the social-psychological approaches of McGregor theory X and Y and Likert's theory of systems of management. Of importance are Rigg's comparative public administration studies that are currently hugely influential in public administration. Other modern approaches include Weidner's development administration and Minnowbrook new public administration perspective.

The discussion will look at the concept of leadership in public administration in relation to theories, concepts, and practices. The concept of leadership and its connection to other concepts like decision-making, unity of command, authority, and hierarchy, are of interest to this research. The discussion also explores the concept of public administration leadership in terms of best practices and ethical principles.

Discussion

Definition

The field of public administration is wide and dynamic, and for this reason, this discussion limits itself to the ramifications of key concepts, theories, and practices on leadership. Public administration is "decision making, the formulation of objectives and goals, planning what is to be done, directing and supervision, communication and receiving communication, providing leadership, and control" (Pruthi, 2005). White, L.D. defines public administration as that which "consists of all those operations having for their purpose the fulfillment or enforcement of public policy" (Naidu, 2005; Osborne, 2006). Simon Herbert finds that it, "is a meant, in common usage, the activities of the executive branches of the national, states, and local government" (Naidu, 2005). Meanwhile, Waldo D. defines it as "the detailed and systematic execution of public law. Every application of law is an act of administration" (Pruthi, 2005; Van Mart, 2011). The variance in the definition of the discipline is an indication of the dynamic and evolutionary nature.

The definitions show that the discipline has historically being a reflection of activities of policies and programs of the government. An analysis of literature provides evidence that public administration is historically the collective efforts of the implementation of public policies given by the law and legislation (Osborne, 2006). This discipline's traditional definition has a basis on the traditional administrative practices of the government, with limitation to the executive branch. On the other hand, the definition in use, in this research is from the modern approaches. It is for this reason this research adopts the definition given by Pruthi (2005).

Theories of Public Administration: Practices from Seminal Works and Modern Approaches

The study of public administration began with Wilson Woodrow as evident in its seminal essay "The Study of Administration" found in the political science quarterly of 1887 (Naidu, 2005; Van Mart, 2003). This introduces the progressive nature of PA, under the influence of the political system that called for reforms and professionalism. The reformations led to the creation of a public administration that is efficient and businesslike. Wilson's theory directs that leadership deal with policy formulation and the carrying out of the policies. This theory creates a dichotomy between politics and administration, since politics is policy formulation and administration is policy implementation (Naidu, 2005). Wilson requires administrative leadership to separate from politics (Trottier, Van Mart & Wang, 2008). To this theory, an effective administrative leader creates politically neutral and technically competent administrative systems that create democracy in an organization (Van Mart, 2003). Though the theory's dichotomy is no longer in use, it has a vital influence on Frank Goodnow's scientific theory and the classical approach of Fayol Henry, Urwick and Gulick.

However, Wilson's theory has considerable implications on modern administration. This is because it requires administrators to have clear characteristics and objectives for the systematic execution of the law. For Wilson, the administrative leader maximizes on effectiveness, economy, and efficiency in public business. Moreover, Wilson contributes to the comparative approach of public administration. In this approach, the leader takes administration as a universal science whose principles have no policy (Naidu, 2005; Purith, 2005). Public policy here in implies those policies that an administrator or organization creates and implements to achieve certain goals.

This leads to the concept of public policy analysis in public administration as seen in the views of Henry Nicholas in his literature, "Public Administration and Public Affairs" (Van Mart, 2003). This literature is noteworthy as it directs the administrative leader to public policy as applicable in the field of management science, policy analysis, and program evaluation. The major contribution of this literature is the importance of public policy analysis to being more reactive to social and organizational need. This receives support from Goodnow's (1900) work "Politics and Administration," which identifies "politics have to do with policies, while the administration has to do with the execution of the policies" (Naidu, 2005). This requires a leader to know the dichotomy between politics and administration in policy formulation, decision-making, implementation, planning, and evaluation. The goal is to have the administrator that improves public policy making process, by taking into consideration the political environment in which public policy often occurs.

Another historical theory that influences public administration leadership, is the "Classical Theory" a postulation of Herbert Simon. The theory has contributions from 20th century theorists like Luther Gulick, Henri Fayol, Lyndall Urwick, and Mooney J.D. other references of this theory are the "Administrative Management Theory," "Structural Theory," "Principles of Management," and "Formal Organizational Theory" (Naidu, 2005). The classical theory is a product of the 1880s American industrial revolution and it the mother of the current modern theories. The theory contributes the administrative leadership's functional foremanship, bureaucratic, and planning. This is because it has the aspects of Max Weber's bureaucratic theory and Henri Fayol's "Scientific Management Theory" (Naidu, 2005). It is from this theory that leadership aspects originate from its elements, which include organizing, planning, commanding, controlling, and coordinating. Fayol's theory is essential to this mind map since from it does the concept of administrative leadership arise. These public, administrative concepts are division of work, departmentalization, single and plural leadership roles, coordination, leadership, supervision, and hierarchy (Osborne, 2006). Others include unity of command, span of control, authority, decision-making, line and staff agencies, centralization and decentralization, communication, delegation and administrative adjudication (Naidu, 2005; Purith, 2005; Van Mart, 2003).

Therefore, this map finds that the public, administrative concepts or principles arise also from Fayol's management principles of the organizational structure. These principles are division of work, discipline, authority, unity of command, scalar chain, unity of direction, centralization, equity, order, subordination of individual interest to the interests of all, remuneration, initiative, spirit de corps, centralization, and stability and job security (Trottier, Van Mart & Wang, 2008). The Fayol's approach is essential to defining the roles, principles, responsibility, and ethical principles of an administrative leader. This is because the map shows the linkage between administrative concepts and the principles of the classical theory, with distinct elements of leadership concepts, practices, and ethical implications. Therefore, the theory is still practical in administrative leadership as it defines the power of the administrative leader. The theory introduces the trait and characteristics of leadership. To this theory an effective leader is decisive, flexible and inclusive (Van Mart, 2003).

The classical theory further receives support from the seminal works written by Gulick and Urwick in 1937, "Papers on the Science of Administration" (Naidu, 2005). Their contribution is on some of the principles of public administration by Fayol. In their seminal work, the most salient principles for administrative leadership are the division of work and coordination. This is because they are the keys to efficiency, productivity, and economic rationality (Purith, 2005). With the division of work, the organizational structure realizes hierarchy where the leader is at the top of the organization to direct organizational behavior. This theory is the mother of the behaviorists that postulate that effective administrative leadership influences organizational behavior and initiates structure in an organization (Van Mart, 2003). This is in a leader's ethical implications where consideration for others entails leadership behavior that develops and includes the proper feeling of subordinates (Van Mart, 2003). The leader should also have initiating structures, which behaviors that define roles, control, focus on tasks, coordinate work within and out of the organizational unit (Van Mart, 2003). It is under Gulick and Urwick's theory that administrative leadership receives the functional elements of planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting to achieve organizational efficiency and productivity. It is through Gulick that public administration realizes its departmentalization concept. This concept entails the structure of an organization's department where they are under the influence of their service, use, persons, and place where work occurs (Naidu, 2005). This introduces the administrative leader whose duties and responsibilities are under the influence of these characteristics.

A powerful theory that contributes to public administration leadership is Max Weber's "Bureaucratic Theory." This theory is essential to understanding the leadership concept of public administration since it defines authority and elements of authority. To Weber, organizational structure and culture is under the influence of the division of labor where the leader directs well-defined functions (Purith, 2005). This introduces the hierarchical organization of authority and functions under higher leadership control and supervision. In the theory, leadership has authority over a set of rules, which define the rights, authority, and duties of employees and work. Public administration in this theory contains records define administrative decisions, acts, and rules. Given the diversity of public administrative elements, an effective leader must depict rationality in the decision-making following rules set.

Elton Mayo's "Human Relations Theory" is essential since its assumptions are the basis for modern social-psychological thought. Under this theory, administrative leadership involves the relation between personal dignity and social propensity of man towards productive performance (Van Mart, 2003). This theory is useful as it relates to the 1950s and 1960s behaviorist theories of Maslow, McGregor, Likert, and Arygris, where implicit and explicit situational leadership styles overcome the disadvantages of authority and hierarchy. Arygris's administrative leadership is about the use of theory of action, which governs a leader's actual behavior and tacit structures (Van Mart, 2011). The theory of action directs the leader to make a distinction between organizations and individuals. This is where implicit leadership styles that govern what the leader does as a manager and practitioner. This also involves those explicit styles, which call a leader to speak out action against others (Van Mart, 2003). This implies that an effective administrative leader must distinguish between their personal goals and those of the organization.

To achieve organizational goals, Maslow's Theory of Needs, identifies that there is a need for a leader to understand human nature, their needs, behavior, and the best motivation. An effective administrative leader must recognize the location of subordinates on the different levels of Maslow's needs (Purith, 2005). Basic human needs involve psychological, self-esteem, security, affection, and physiological needs. The second level, is meta-needs, which are needs of being like goodness, justice, unity, order, and beauty among others. A leader can motivate and influence individual subordinates to meet organizational goals by meeting these needs (Van Mart, 2003). Moreover, the fulfillment of basic needs motivates the individual to realize personal goals thereby satisfying meta-needs.

A third behaviorist theory that supports satisfaction and motivation rather than maximization and optimization in administrative leadership is, Herbert Simon's theory. Herbert describes his theory in his 1969 third edition seminal work, "The Sciences of the Artificial" (Naidu, 2005). This is a theory of decision-making that focuses on human reasoning rather than expected abstractions in leadership. This theory requires administrative leadership to gather additional information from all decision makers and stakeholders prior to making a decision (Van Mart, 2003). The satisfactory theory recommends leaders to set parameters to problems and thereby selecting the solution that meets most of these parameters. This leads to the use of the good-enough solution over the best solution.

A significant social-psychology theory is McGregor's theory X and theory Y this theory assumes that leadership styles depend on the belief of the leader on the nature of people. In theory X, a leader is a supervisor that uses supervisory tactics under the influence of their belief in human characteristics exemplified by the theory (Naidu, 2005). In this theory, the assumption is that people dislike work and will try to avoid it most people require coercion and control to work, and the average person needs direction in their responsibility and duties from the leader. Therefore, theory X makes significant contributions to the public administrator's concepts of control, chain of command and authority (Purith, 2005). Theory Y on the other hand, directs leaders to assume that human beings want to work, are problem solvers, creative, self-motivated, innovative, and seek to achieve self-actualization needs. In this theory, public administrators exhibit leadership styles, which embrace the assumption that external control and threat do not necessarily direct organization behavior (Van Mart, 2003). The theory leads to administrative leadership styles that require subordinates to exercise self-control and self-direction. These theories are applicable in understanding leader role in meeting individual and organizational objectives.

A pivotal theory is Likert's "Systems of Administration" where four leadership styles emerge from his system. The first is the "Exploitative Authoritative" leadership where leadership is in the executive or upper echelons of the organization hierarchy. The second is the "Benevolent Authoritative" leadership where responsibility falls on lower levels of management in the organizational hierarchy (Van Mart, 2003). The third is the "Consultative" leadership where the distribution of responsibility in the organizational hierarchy is equal. The last is "Participative" leadership where the distribution of responsibility of achieving organizational goals in the organizational hierarchy is equal (Naidu, 2005). This theory is beneficial as it indicates the different styles of leadership profiles given in different public administrative concepts like authority, unity of command, goal setting, decision-making, control, interaction, and communication.

Currently the public administrator is facing a varied workforce and organization due to globalization that is causing exchange of people, ideals, practices, and concepts. An effective public administrator therefore finds it necessary to apply dynamic leadership approaches (Trottier, Van Mart & Wang, 2008). The Woodrow's "Comparative Administration" best defines these approaches. In this theory, leadership styles and theory derive their behavior and construct from different cultures and nations. In that, the leader better comprehends of the individual and organizational characteristics functioning under different cultural contexts. An effective public administrator is currently a developmental leader who guides individuals and the organization towards the realization of progressive economic, political, and social objectives. Edward Weidner's "Developmental Model of Public Administration" (Naidu, 20005) contributes to this leadership concept. This leader is therefore action- and goal-oriented in the entire social system.

In conclusion, the leadership in public administration draws from various historical as well as modern approaches. It is for this reason, today's organizations call for leaders that can integrate various leadership principles, public administrative theories, concepts, and practices to achieve individual and organizational goals. The mind map shows that the connection between PA theories, concepts, and practices leads to a leader that can identify the most successful initiatives to address salient issues. This leader can cause organizational learning of that which does not and does work for each situation or problem, and can inspire decision-making. The leader follows the ethical principles, which are integrity, human understanding, intelligence, personal honesty, courage, and ability to communicate. As a result, this leader can formulate and implement public administration through planning, politics, projects, and programs.