Native American culture and history

Native American Culture

The Native American people occupied the Americas before the arrival of the Europeans in the 15th century and have long been known as Indians because when Columbus reached the shores he believed he had landed in the Indies (Natives Pp).

It is generally agreed by most scholars that the Native Americans came to the Western Hemisphere from Asia via the Bering Strait or along the North Pacific coast in series of migrations spreading east and south (Natives Pp).

It is believed that these waves of migration account for the numerous native linguistic families while the common origin explains the physical characteristics that Native Americans share, such as Mongoloid features, coarse straight black hair, dark eyes, sparse body hair, and skin color ranging from yellow-brown to reddish brown (Natives Pp).

The majority of scholars believe that they arrived approximately 12,000 years ago, while other accept evidence that they have exited in the Americas for more than 25,000 years (Natives Pp). Moreover, there is dispute concerning pre-Columbian population, with some conservatively estimating it to be roughly 1.8 million, while other authorities believe the population to be more than ten million (Natives Pp). Regardless, within the first few decades of European contact, the Native population dropped dramatically due to smallpox, influenza, measles, and other diseases to which they had not previously been exposed (Natives Pp).

It is generally agreed that from prehistoric times until recent historic times there were approximately six major cultural areas, Northwest Coast, Plains, Plateau, Eastern Woodlands, Northern, and Southwest (Natives Pp).

The main language family of the Northwest Coast were the Nadene in the north and the Wakashan, a subdivision of the Algonquian-Wakashan linguistic stock, and the Tsimshian, a subdivision of the Penutian linguistic stock in the central area (Natives Pp). They had a highly stratified society with chiefs, nobles, commoners, and slaves, and are famed for their artwork of ceremonial items such as rattles and masks, weaving and basketry (Natives Pp). Moreover, they had woven robes, furs, basket hats, wooden armor and helmets for battle, and their culture included cannibalistic rituals (Natives Pp).

The main language families of the Plains were the Algonquian-Wakashan, the Aztec-Tanoan, and the Hokan-Siouan and during the pre-Columbian era there were both sedentary tribes who settled and farmed and nomadic tribes who moved about with dog-drawn travois and hunted the buffalo (Natives Pp). When the Spanish introduced the horse at the beginning of the 18th century, it revolutionized their way of life as well as other tribes who left their villages and joined the nomads and because of this a universal sign language developed among the tribes who traveled on horseback and lived in tepees (Natives Pp).

The Plateau was an area of great linguistic and cultural diversity, including brush shelters or lean-tos, tepees, and buried earth lodges for ceremonies and ritual sweat baths (Natives Pp). Their basketry was highly developed, as was their social, political, and religious systems (Natives Pp).

The natives of the Eastern Woodlands spoke languages of the Algonquian-Wakashan stock and were hunters and farmers (Natives Pp). Deerskin clothing, face painting and the scalp lock of the men were typical, as well as tobacco smoking, pottery making and burial mounds (Natives Pp). Society was divided into classes with a chief, his children, nobles and commoners (Natives Pp).

The main languages of the Northern area were Algonquian-Wakashan and the Nadene stocks and they lived as hunters and gatherers (Natives Pp). The snowshoe was one of the most important items of material culture and the shaman was paramount in the religion (Natives Pp).

The Uto-Aztecan branch of the Aztec-Tanoan linguistic stock was the main language of the Southwest group (Natives Pp). This seminomadic people, the Basket Makers, hunted with a spear thrower and acquired the art of cultivating beans and squash, and unfired pottery (Natives Pp). They lived in large, terraced community houses set on ledges of cliffs and canyons and developed a ceremonial chamber, called the kiva (Natives Pp).

Life for Native American in the 20th century has been marked by poverty, inadequate health care, poor education, and unemployment, however, new economic opportunities have arisen from an upswing in tourism and the development of natural resources and other businesses on many reservations, such as full-scale casinos which provide much needed revenue and employment (Natives Pp). In 1968 the first tribal college opened on the Navajo reservation and by 1995, there were twenty-nine such college (Natives Pp). There are numerous radio stations, as well a newspapers and periodicals (Natives Pp).

A common concept among the majority of Native tribes is that of a dual divinity: "a Creator who is responsible for the creation of the world and is recognized in religious ritual and prayers, and a mythical individual, a hero or trickster, who teaches culture, proper behavior and provides sustenance to the tribe" (Native pp). Totems are a part of the spiritual path and represent the understanding cultural heritage as well as personality types (Meeks pp). Animal totems embody not only spiritual beings, messengers and guides, but also "embody some very firm principles in facing internal psychological conflicts that can have a bearing on many aspects of life including the spiritual aspect" (Meeks pp). Even today the dances at Powwows have a strong personal and spiritual dimension as each dance involves different stories and interpretation, depending on tribal and family background (Dances pp).

The arrival of Europeans marked a major change in Native society as tens of millions died from sickness, and programs of slavery and extermination (Native pp). Moreover, Europeans viewed Native American spirituality as worthless superstition and many survivors were forced to convert to Christianity (Native pp). During the mid-20th century both the United States and Canadian governments forced entire generations of native children into residential church operated schools (Native pp).

The current system of tribal government is a governing system imposed by the federal government that is a paternal system that replaces what was previously, in many cases, a matriarchal society, and is viewed by many as no more than an arm of the federal government (Line pp).