Non-traditional families: single parent homes versus two parent homes

Non-Traditional Families

Exercise Questions

The general topic covering this research is sociology and uncovering patterns within contemporary American society. This includes extrapolating the socio-cultural change that is occurring in modern day life. Within the larger discipline sociology, the research explores the genre of the modern family.

This change is not always a positive change. In fact, one such change is the increase of single parent, nontraditional family homes, which has been shown by research to have a correlative relationship between several socio-cultural changes occurring simultaneously because of this relationship (Pong et al., 2003; ). Unfortunately the increasing trends on the break down of the traditional family have been associated with negative consequences of the children within such families, including poorer academic performance (Jones, 2007; Huan, 2003). This may also have a hand in creating a situation where these children are finding limited opportunities for them once they reach adulthood, an element that can be tied to the increase of unemployment in the United States as well.

Question 3

Thus, there is reason for the research to ask questions revolving how the rise in single parent families is affecting children of those family styles, and the average academic performances of the nation in general. What is the relationship between a rise in single family homes and later academic outcomes of the children from such origins?

Question 4

Here, there are two units of analysis. First are families, and more specifically the presence of parents in the household. This includes a look at single parent homes vs. traditional two parent families. The research also uses the individual. Are these familial issues affecting the children growing up within them? The research is focusing on examining a very individual unit of analysis to make larger assumptions about a whole group (Singleton & Straits, 2005). For this perspective, the research will be examining SAT scores based on average national statistics and those more associated with single parent families based on income levels.

Question 5

There are a few variables for analysis here. There are the rising levels on non-traditional families. Additionally, there is the academic performance of such children compared to children coming from a traditional family home.

Question 6

Here, the independent variable is the family style, whether the participants are from a single parent home or a traditional two parent family. Thus, the dependent variable is the effects of living in that family style.

Question 7

The research plans to establish causality between lowered academic achievements and presence of the single parent variable. The direction of the relationship is that single parent environments impact a student's academic achievement.

Question 8

Average income levels are the other major variable important to this research. Examining income levels, and the fact that they are on average lower for single parent families helps allow the research to use income-based data to help strengthen assumptions.

Question 9

Thus, the hypotheses are as follows: a) single parent families are on the rise and b) this is having an impact on modern youth academic performance.

Question 10

Here, the thesis statement is that the rise of single parent families is having an impact on average children's academic performance.

Question 11

The research will implore mostly quantitative methods, by using regression analysis to show the increase of single parent homes. However, it will also incorporate data from peer reviewed sources that show the corresponding SAT scores of children based on income.

Question 12

There are a number of theories which prove helpful. Socio-economic theories explaining that the lower the income the lower the achievement levels help structure the concept of single parent families. Such theory also posits that the lack of resources available to the single parent pose serious threats to children's academic performance. Moreover, theory describing psychological stresses involved with growing up in a single parent home help show why this might be occurring.

Question 13

The study relies on previously collected aggregate data from reliable government sources. This includes combined statistical information that was originally collected by a reliable organization or peer reviewed study (Singleton and Straits, 2005). The research states that "when information about individuals is aggregated to describe groups or collectives, the unit of analysis may either be the individual or the group," (Singleton and Straits, 2005, p 46). Thus, the study makes larger assumptions of the group based on individual statistics.

Research Questions

Are single parent homes on the rise?

Are these non-traditional families affecting the children growing up within them?

Week 2

Chapter 1: Introduction

There is a cultural change occurring in the United States. The nature of the family is increasingly developing into new genres. What were once predominately two parent families, the United States is seeing rising numbers of single parent families. This has cultural ramifications, in that it is essentially changing the fabric of society itself. Moreover, these single parent families are often associated with lower income averages than their two parent counterparts. This creates a new vision of the American family in a much different socio-economic position than what was seen fifty years ago.

Research Questions

From the primary literature investigation, there are some clear questions that become apparent right away. These research questions were then used to help direct the structure and direction of the following research. The primary research questions at the foundation of this research include the following:

Are single parent families on the rise?

Are these families bringing in lower income averages than their two parent home counterparts?

Is this impacting their children's academic performance?

Is this increase bringing down national averages of academic performance?

Problem Statement

Due to the increase in single parent families there has been a negative impact on the academic achievement of society's children. Exploring more about this relationship, and how income levels help stratify the boundaries between single and two parent families, this research can make larger assumptions about the issue. What is the relationship between increasing numbers of single families in the United States and the children's later lives? The data fills "the gap in comparative knowledge on single parenthood and children's school performance," (Pong et al., 2003, p 683). It is important to understand cultural changes as they occur, so that we as a society can react proactively to help provide more opportunities for populations being denied them by socio-economic factors.

Research Hypothesis

Based on the growing body of literature and statistical data on the subject, the research here will be able to explore these concepts thoroughly. However, before analysis can be conducted, it is important to extrapolate the hypotheses of this research in order to better test their validity. Thus, the research hypotheses include the following: a) the number of single parent families is on the rise, and will continue to rise in the future, b) this rise in single parent families is affecting the children within such environments by lowering academic achievement levels, and c) this increase is then bringing down national levels of academic achievements.

Week 3

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Rise of Single Parent Families and Subsequent Affects

There is an incredible wealth of information showing the rise in non-traditional families. Thus, it is clear that it is occurring across the globe in various degrees. From 1997 to 2001, the number of unmarried childbirths increased in the United States (Kennedy & Bumpass, 2008). This number began to climb midway through the twentieth century, and has gained in speed since. In 2007, there were over 13.7 million single parents with guardianship of over 21 million children (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2009). Today, this population makes up a large portion of American families. In fact, over 25% of all children in the United States lived with one parent only (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2009). This makes the issue a serious one, considering that so many American families are facing the consequences of these impacts.

There are several major consequences the literature posits as a result of life in a single parent home. First, "in general they face a higher risk of low academic achievement and of dropping out than do children who live in two-parent families," (Pong et al., 2003, p 684). The drops out rates are significantly higher in children coming from these non-traditional families. This is often associated with income levels as well, which are pervasive throughout the various consequences (Worth, 1992). Unfortunately, this higher risk of drop out rates often has a cyclical consequence of its own. Pong et al. (2003) posits that such individuals coming from single family homes that do drop out eventually have much lower opportunity than their counterparts who stayed in school. This eventually leads a majority of such individuals to repeat the cycle, as many end up in a single parent home situation with themselves as the parent, rather than the child this time around.

Additionally, research suggests that single parent families often suffer from generalized lower academic achievement (Jones, 2007). Thus, achievement while in school also tends to lag based on the presence of only a single parent. The research suggests that "Children from single parent homes are much more likely to receive poor grades and eventually drop out of school," (Jones, 2007). General grade point averages, SAT scores, and school involvement tend to be lower than their peers coming from two parent homes (Park, 2008).

Lower collegiate attendance is also another major issue that is seen within this growing population. On average individuals coming out of single parent homes go to college less than their counterparts with both parents present (Huan, 2003). This is often associated with the poorer grades that were discussed earlier. However, it is also often tied to spending habits on education (Huan, 2003). Once again, this population is subject to lower income averages, which makes spending so much money on college a difficult endeavor. Moreover, there is another impact which tends to have a negative impact on numbers of children from single parent families going to college (Worth, 1992). According to the research, lower involvement of parents in creating dreams of children going to college (Stage & Hossler, 1989).

The various obstacles many children from single parent families face are seen on a global context. Although this study is testing data only prevalent within the context of the United States, the literature on the topic shows a clear pattern across multiple countries around the globe. Thus, such issues are present both here in the United States and abroad (Pong et al., 2003). In fact, this trend is common in many major Westernized nations. Nations including the UK, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Switzerland, too, suffer from the negative aspects of a rise in single parent families (Pong et al., 2003). This then makes the issue a global problem, adding more importance to research extrapolating causes and potential remedies.

There are also different types of single parent families that have uniquely varying issues associated with them more so than other types. Most single parent families are structured with single mothers heading the household. In fact, 82.6% of children living in single parent families lived only with their mothers (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2009). Thus, when research shows evidence of data patterns associated with single parent households, it is predominately relating to households dominated by a single mother. Even within this larger demographic, there are unique sub-categories. For example, "In the United States, evidence suggests that children from single-mother families due to the death of the father show similar levels of educational and occupational attainment compared to those from two-parent families, which are significantly higher than the levels of those from divorced single mother families," (Park, 2008, p 379).

Yet, fathers too often play the role of the single parent, just not as much as their female counterparts. Only about 17.4% of children in single parent families lived with their fathers as of 2007 (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2009). This is an incredibly lower percentage when compared to the single parent households dominated by mothers. However, single parent homes lead by fathers also tend to have their own unique issues that can cause negative affects on the children involved in the situation. Pong et al. (2003) states that "Single father families, however, exhibit more behavioral and academic problems than do children in either single mother or stepfamilies," (685). There are a unique set of characteristics that revolve around father centered households featuring only one parent. Most often, these can be associated with a traumatic loss of the mother, either through death or through rejection.

Single parent homes are increasing dramatically. One might think this would bring greater attention to the problems involved. However, contemporary research actually shows the opposite. In fact, the growth of the single family demographic is though to have negative impacts on policies and programs that could otherwise help those in such situations. Thus, "the growth in single parent families could reduce the tolerance and sympathy toward single parents, and subsequently trigger policy stringency," (Pong et al., 2003, p 689). This creates a situation where it is difficult to implement programs and policies that might actually benefit children of single parent families.

Setting and Demographic

The demographical group of single parent families is immensely large. This makes the study of it difficult. It is clear that "Single parent families are not a homogenous group," (Pong et al., 685). Most prove to be mother headed households in low income socio-economic roles. However, there are other varieties. This, it is important to structure methodological approaches based on what has proven successful in past research efforts.

Pong et al. (2003) studied the academic impact single parenting has on children and made some clear assumptions based on a successful methodological approach. Pong et al. (2003) made general assumptions based on prior literature regarding the negative impacts single parent families have on children's academic performances as a generalized group. They created a situation where they explored differences in academic achievement levels between children from single parent and two parent family homes (Pong et al., 2003). The study examined in industrialized nations, including the United States, Australia, Austria, Canada, England, Ireland, Iceland, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, and Scotland. Its independent variables were the presence of either one or two parents, while its dependent variable was the actual level of academic achievement recorded through national database resources.

The methodology was successful in exploring the demographic. Pong et al. (2003) used 1995 population data from the Third International Math and Science Study to gather data about the demographic at hand. The study itself was based on the large breadth of already published information the source provided. It looked at third and fourth grade students. Additionally, it combined with nation by nation analysis of numbers of single parent families present in each nation. The random effect HLM model was used in correlation with other strategies to extrapolate patterns in the relationships present in the data (Pong et al., 2003). The study used regression analysis to examine current trends and make future predictions and included individual analysis of each nation.

After structuring the research with sound methodological principles, Pong et al. then moved to help work to find methods to rectify the situation. Pong et al. hypothesized that "different policy environments can influence the relationship between single parenthood and children's academic achievement by changing a family's disposable income and parental time units," (2003, p 687). OLS regression showed that adjusting average resources for single parent families could have the impact of changing academic performance in a positive way.

However, the study did leave open some major questions. It was limited to only industrialized countries (Pong et al., 2003). This left out non-industrialized and developing nations. Thus, the study presents cultural biases that only represent a portion of the actual global education. Pong et al. (2003) was also limited based on the broad assumptions it makes. It does not give a full clear picture of the situation as it was occurring in each of the nation it analyzed. Thus, it left out details that would have been more prevalent if the study had focused on one country alone.

Park (2008) also suggested using a successful methodology within the framework of his study. It actually examined a non-Western culture, Korea. Park (2008) also focused the analysis of the study on one culture in particular, in order to make more specific assumptions about the nation. However, Park's study provides more details about Korea that would have been lost in research examining multiple studies. There was previously little research had actually been conducted within non-Western nations regarding the affect of single parent families and academic achievement (Park, 2008). Thus, the study itself bridged a gap within the context of modern research regarding South Asian cultural and socio-economic patterns. This also allowed more detail examination of uniquely Korean social phenomena as it correlated with academic achievement levels of the nation's youth. The culture of Korea had been witnessing increasing changes in its traditional familial structures, (Park, 2008). High rates of divorce were changing the nature of the Korean family. However, also the larger role of the extended family in the social fabric of Korean cultures than seen in countries like the United States (Park, 2008). Moreover, Korean legal traditions tended to place custody of children in the homes of the fathers after a divorce (Park, 2008). Thus, the study was based on the presence of a strong patriarchal culture in the region. It examined a growing social phenomenon in order to better understand the contemporary effects that were correlated with it

Here, data was once again collected from published research of reliable sources. Park (2008) used information fathered by the Korean Education and Employment Panel. The study also employed stratified cluster sampling in order to choose the data most appropriate (Park, 2008). Park examined 9th grade, 12th grade, and vocational students. The following tables show his findings.

Table 3. Percentages of Familial Structure (Park, 2008).

Park (2008) also examined whether children wanted to go on to a four-year university. Thus, he gave a rating system in order to statistically analyze social concepts and phenomenon. He gave 0 to students who did not want to go on to college

1 for students who did (Park, 2008). Then, the study compared this group to children with two parents in the family.

Table 4. College Aspirations in Single Parent vs. Two Parent Homes

Park (2008) used logistic regression analysis. This makes statistical measurement of past and current trends, coupled with predictions for future trends. It was essentially a mixed methods study, used qualitative analysis of student interviews to correlate with larger statistical data (Park, 2008). It showed that economic issues were also a major aggravator of lower academic achievement (Park, 2008). Socio-economic elements prevalent as well as familial structures, which helps frame the current research inquiry. Unfortunately, it painted an even more desolate picture of families that were both single parent and low income.

Theoretical Framework

There are a multitude of theories and theoretical assumptions that try to explain this phenomenon. Again, issues of average income come into play. There are great socio-economic differentiations in average statistics describing single parent homes vs. two parent homes. The research suggests that "Single parent families tend to be poorer than are two parent families," (Park, 2008, p 379). Less money often means les opportunities. The average single parent family has one primary money maker, which significantly reduces the potential income of the household (Linder, 1994). This could then be assumed to have a serious impact on the opportunities presented to a child of a certain socio-economic status. This concept is based on trends in socio-economic statuses of individuals in the United States and the clearly divided class lines. The research suggests that "The proportion of children born to unmarried parents continues to vary greatly by socioeconomic status, race, and ethnicity," (Kennedy & Bumpass, 2008, p 1677). Essentially, fewer resources to facilitate the child's academic success (Pong et al., 2003).

Table 1. Poverty of Single Family Households (Rampell, 2009)

Table 2. Average Income of Single Parent Families to Married Families (Linder, 1994)

Educational gaps within single parent families also prove statistically significant. According to Kennedy and Bumpass (2008), 74% of mothers educated at a four-year university are married, thus providing their children with the comforts and security of a two-parent household. However, mothers who dropped out of high school only had a 40% chance of marrying (Bumpass, 2008). This often creates a situation where the single parent in charge of the household may have to work more in order to produce sufficient income for the family to live off of. Thus, single parents are often less available to help direct and watch over their children's academic performances. Therefore, "the meager material resources of most single parents and the fact that time pressures on single parents make them less able to participate in their children's schooling," (Pong et al., 2003, p 685). With less time available for single parents to spend on watching their children, there is not as much supervision than two parent families, which contributes to overall academic performance (Park, 2008).

Thus, socio-economic theory is the most appropriate theoretical framework for the exploration of lowered income levels as correlating with lowered academic achievement levels. Such theory posits the concept that socio-economic systems impact the daily lives of individuals within the larger society. Thus, one's economic status will essentially impact one's social status. The two are intimately intertwined. Economic statuses then serve "as frameworks for social agents or groups of agents to not only produce and exchange but to exercise power and to conflict, as well as to innovate and carry out socio-economic transformations," (Baugmgartner et al., 1986, p 4). They heavily influence various factors of social life and the roles individuals play within a larger social structure. Class status eventually seeps into social status. Thus, "Socio-economic systems and their effects can be examined, therefore, not only as 'targets of social struggle' between different social classes or groups but also as sources of contradiction and conflict," (Baugmgartner et al., 1986, p 2). Essentially, the impact of low economic statuses has a negative impact on social roles. The lower common average of single parent families in terms of economic status then places them within a lower social status, with lower expectations and achievement results.

Week 4

Chapter 3: Methodology

Research Design

Here, the research measurements are "according to society's safety net systems," (Pong et al., 2003, p 683). This includes measuring academic achievements through examining traditional methods of cognitive evaluations of SAT scores. Thus, the independent variables include whether the child was raised in a single or two parent household, while the dependent variable is the subsequent academic performance. Single parent families are meant "to mean that the child lives with only one biological or adoptive parent," (Pong et al., 2003 p 689). Divorce, death of a parent, separation, or based on situations on non-marital child birth can all create a situation of a single parent household. Two parent families, on the other hand, include two parental figures. These can include a mix of biological, step, and adoptive parents (Pong et al., 2003).

Description of Subjects

There are two general sets of subjects present within this current research: single family parents and students of all familial origins who have taken the SAT test over the last several decades. Single parent families are compared to their traditional family counterparts, and include both mother and father headed households. The subjects were drawn by national surveys, thus representing a large breadth of the social structures present within the United States. Moreover, the data set includes several decades of subject participation, therefore providing a strong systematic background to analyze the datasets.

Data Collection

This research takes several distinct procedures in order to test its three hypotheses. First, it takes empirical data collected from the U.S. Census to examine whether or not single parent families are on the rise. Then, it looks to use income boundaries as a way to explore the academic achievement levels of groups associated with single parent homes. Finally, it examines national data of average SAT scores, provided by College Board, as a way to see if the rise in single parent families is impacting national averages on top of its own genre.

Variables: Dependent

There are several dependent variables used within the context of this analysis. First is the economic status of the families examined within the research. The income levels are highly dependent on whether the family is headed by one or two parents. Moreover, there is the dependent variable of academic achievement, which also varies based on familial structure.

Variables: Independent

The main independent variable here is the increasing numbers of non-traditional families present within contemporary American society. The increase in single parent families is occurring independently of economic status and academic achievement. Yet, the status of the family does have a major impact on the two listed dependent variables.

For the purpose of this research, regression analysis was used in order to show patterns within the datasets originally published by the U.S. Census and the College Board. The regression analysis plots out current and past patterns in order to provide a structure for later analysis. Additionally, it allows for the future prediction of such patterns if elements continue at the same rate they are witnessing today. The number of single parent vs. traditional families was statistically analyzed this way, along with the national SAT scores published by the College Board.