Political Philosophy

¶ … Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle's attempts to come to an understanding of human nature ultimately lead him to an understanding of justice. He attempts to understand how humans can reach true happiness, and delves deeply into the definitions of true happiness (eudaimonia) and virtue, and outlines how virtue and happiness are intertwined. Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics deals with metaphysics, and focuses on ides like soul, happiness, virtue, and friendship. In Nicomachean Ethics, he concludes that happiness ultimately derives from activities of the soul that are in accordance with virtue.

Says Aristotle "happiness is an activity of soul in accordance with perfect virtue" (Book I). Aristotle argues that the life that leads to the most happiness is a life of philosophical contemplation. However, he acknowledges that in order to achieve this life some members of a city-state must live a life of politics, adhering to the principles of justice, the highest of the virtues. Ultimately, Aristotle argues that a life devoted to virtues is second only in achieving eudaimonia to a life that is devoted to philosophical reflection.

In Book V of Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle delves into a discussion of dikaiosune (justice). He notes that justice is extremely important in a society of free and equal people. Further, he makes a clear distinction between justice and ethics. Justice consists of following the rules, while ethics is comprised of doing the right and moral thing in cases where justice may lead to the wrong result. To the philosopher Aristotle, justice is the ultimate virtue, as it requires having all other virtues, and unifies and orders the other virtues.

The other virtues are friendliness, temperance, truthfulness, wit, courage, generosity, magnanimity, magnificence, right ambition, and good temper. Says Aristotle of justice "all men mean by justice that kind of state of character which makes people disposed to do what is just and makes them act justly and wish for what is just; and similarly by injustice that state which makes them act unjustly and wish for what is unjust" (Book V). Aristotle defines two types of justice: natural justice and legal justice.

Natural justice is the same across time, and countries. From observation, Aristotle notes that this type of justice can be difficult to see. As such, different definitions of justice are held by different regimes and governments, in spite of their good intentions. Natural justice is unchanging in principle.

In differentiating the two types of Justice, Aristotle notes, "Of political justice part is natural, part legal, natural, that which everywhere has the same force and does not exist by people's thinking this or that; legal, that which is originally indifferent, but when it has been laid down is not indifferent" (Book V). According to Aristotle, legal justice is simply the law, and is often at odds with natural justice. In the city state legal and natural justice are necessarily intertwined in the laws of the city.

Unlike natural justice which is unchanging in principle, legal justice can change often according to the time and needs of society. Noted Aristotle, "the things which are just not by nature but by human enactment are not everywhere the same, since constitutions also are not the same, though there is but one which is everywhere by nature the best" (Book V). Interestingly, Aristotle refers to justice in the context of friendship.

He notes, "when men are friends they have no need of justice, while when they are just they need friendship as well, and the truest form of justice is thought to be a friendly quality" (Book VII). Aristotle felt that politics was the most authoritative science. It was politics that prescribed the sciences that were important for study within the city-state. For example, rhetoric and military science fall under the rubric of politics. Given that politics governs other sciences, all other sciences are ultimately directed toward achieving human good.

Says Aristotle, "Even if the end is the same for an individual and for a city-state, that of the city-state seems at any rate greater and more complete to attain and preserve. For although it is worthy to attain it for only an individual, it is nobler and more divine to do so for a nation or city-state." Aristotle felt that justice was good for both the individual and the state. Justice was comprised of both treating others fairly, and the proportional distribution of goods.

Further, Aristotle argued that justice required that benefits and goods should be distributed among the people on the basis of their ability. He argued against the ultimate end of the city state was the good life, or a life of noble actions. Therefore, the laws of the state must conform to justice. In addition, justice should ultimately consist of giving political rights to those who would make a full contribution to political life. Aristotle argues that virtues are important in governing a state.

He notes that "the actuality of the practical virtues is in political and military activity." He notes that the politician is very different from the private individual in the contemplative aspect of his life. As such, he notes that the ultimate private life is a philosophical life, while the ultimate political life is focused on the good of the city-state rather than the individual. Aristotle noted two distinct types of virtues: the intellectual and the moral.

On the division between moral and intellectual virtues, Aristotle notes, "we say that some of the virtues are intellectual and others moral, philosophic wisdom and understanding and practical wisdom being intellectual, liberality and temperance moral" (Book I). He argued that moral virtues like justice and courage were inferior to intellectual virtues which ultimately aimed at human knowledge. On noting the supremacy of intellectual virtues over moral virtues Aristotle notes "But again it is not supreme over philosophic wisdom, i.e.

over the superior part of us, any more than the art of medicine is over health; for it does not use it but provides for its coming into being; it issues orders, then, for its sake, but not to it" (Book VI). Further, Aristotle the greatest happiness (eudaimonia) comes from achieving our greatest virtues. As such, any life committed to justice (even though it was the highest moral virtue) was inferior to a life committed to intellectual virtues.

Therefore, a life of politics was necessarily less than a life of philosophical contemplation since a life of politics achieved.