Propaganda concepts and historical impact

Propaganda

Whitney, C. & Wartella, E. (2001). Violence and Media. International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences.

Media in a way supposedly contributes to violence in the world. This is a controversial subject, but reviews conclude that media violence plays a significant role in the real world violence is a public policy issue. Impacts of social media on a young audience are the most impressionable and there is a perception that adults have resistance to the influence of violence. A number of agencies dealing with health have identified media violence as a main health problem. Research shows that Americans are among the world's most violent, most exported, and there exists some arguments that violent behaviors in adulthood have developed from media using social media.

Through audiovisual, viewers learn certain behaviors, and they determine which behavior to term as a reward or punishment. Viewers identify actors and learn their aggressive thoughts, evaluations, and violent behaviors. Violence from audiovisual store in the cognitive map, and frequent viewing help in maintaining the violent behaviors. The violent effects fall into five categories including physiological, emotional, cognitive, attitudinal, and behavioral. The violent content aired on television is because there is no consistent definition of violence, especially defining population and sampling frames in television studies.

In the media, they term findings on media violence as controversial. The U.S. Telecommunication Act mandated all television networks to create a rating system. The one they created suggested a certain age, categories and classes of sex, language, and violence to allow for program choices. The same Act mandated inclusion of a chip in newly manufactured televisions to allow parents to filter out programs with violence. In these cases, young children may use age-based ratings to avoid violent programs while adolescents may choose ratings suited for adults. It is clear that media violence has an effect. Interventions aiding development and implementation of policies to incorporate socially responsible forms need encouragement.

Klarer, M. (2005). Pornography: John Gabriel Stedman's Narrative of a Five Years Expedition against the Revolted Negroes of Surinam (1796). New Literary History, 36(4), 559-587.

John Gabriel Steadman was the son of an English officer in Holland, and a Dutch mother. He took part in the five-year expedition (1771-1775) to Dutch Guinea to a place called Surinam. The main mission of Steadman was to protect the European planters against the Negro slaves in that colony. John Steadman published his experiences in Surinam towards the end of his life in 1976. The accounts of his adventures are in a narrative he composed while in Guinea. The narrative has eight plates and gives a lavish illustration of the adventures.

The narrative is against the revolted Negroes of Surinam. It is an influential text of the late 18th and 19th century. It gives a vivid description of Steadman's experience in Surinam as an English officer. The narrative aims at drawing sympathy from the reader by showing detailed imaginations of gruesome descriptions of how the African slaves were tortured and mutilated. The slave abuse has an additional pornographic scene. These scenes form the basis of this narrative. The description of the pornographic scenes appears erotic but later on followed by violence. The pornographic scenes attract a male audience.

The narrative has a melodramatic adaptation especially the romantic relationship between Steadman and Mullato, a slave. However, the poem relies on only one side. It says nothing good about the blacks. Mullato a slave gets a child with Steadman, an English officer, but abandoned in slavery even though the officer might have at least help her. The narrator seems to encourage slavery because there is no part in the poem that discourages the tortures the blacks underwent. In addition, the narrator draws Africans as objects for use by the Whiteman, through slavery and pornography.

Roos, J. (2012). Nationalism, Racism and Propaganda in the Early Weimar Germany: Contradictions in the Campaign against the Black Horror on the Rhine. German History, 30(1), 45 -- 74.

The article says that an average of 25,000 colonial soldiers from North Africa, Senegal, and Madagascar joined the French army positioned in the Rhineland. This was early in the 1922. There were several protests. For instance, there was the race, gender, and nation in the international racist campaign against the black shame. Koller in his careful analysis on the debate about the incorporation and use of colonial powers in Europe realized that there were state directed troops, and other troops aimed at overcoming revolution. The black shame at times conflicted with the official strategies, but the primacy of foreign policy objectives is determining the course of the black shame campaign.

Another campaign against troops was the "black horror of the Rhine." This one was the most important propaganda tools during the Weimar period. It is certainly accurate that the origin of this campaign has substantial evidence to the extent to which the German society supported racism and termed Africans as inferior and uncivilized. The conflicts over black shame heightened forces about national identity in Weimar. In this propaganda, images of women abused sexually abused served as the main cause of victimization through the Versailles treaty.

Black horror was a successful movement, but it contained some contradictions. There existed frequent disagreements among the propagandists on the question on what an effective propaganda should constitute. Racists also claimed that the phenomenal in Rhineland lead to alienation, and there was a risk of exacerbation of traditional forces between the Catholic Rhineland and the central state. In addition, there were concerns that some propagandists were detrimental to the stability of Germany and to its positive image abroad. This led to the fall of the campaign. This article claims that black horror was a successful movement while it was propaganda, and propagandist has adverse negative effects that may lead to war. Africans are the tools for war; they fight amongst themselves through the official and unofficial troops in case there is a conflict.

Entman, R.M. (2001). Mass Media, Representations in. Elsevier Science Ltd.

According to the article, representation entails making something visible to an audience that is absent physically. In most cases, the item presented may be an idea, ideology, or interest, and it has no tangible physical embodiment. Representation mainly involves encoding and decoding this means that the conscious intent of the person relaying the representation may lack significant relevance to the audience's reaction, subsequently to the political and social impacts of the media representation. There are several methods of media representation, among them is framing.

Framing defined as choosing factors of a viewed reality and making them in a communicating text, hence promoting definition, interpretation, moral evaluation, and recommendation. Research suggests that media images reflect and reinforce dominating status judgment. Representation often carries explicit judgments based on capacity, intellect, and morality. Gender representation in the media does register cultural change to endorse gender roles. In the field of politics, and policy, media representation is likely to favor structures of power that merit white men.

This article assumes that representation in a text will have to influence individuals without the individual determining their own sentiments, and at the aggregate level, the sequence of representations in a society's mass media describes and enhance the definition of the media's belief, reinforcing its cultural values and others, yet also disclosing and initiating cultural change. Such assumptions have no basis for perfect research or credible source of information. This means that the article may partly be true or false.

Reinders, C.R.: Racialism on the Left E.D. Morel and the 'Black Horror on the Rhine.'

Africans have experienced the worst form of treatment under the White man's influence. The black man remains trapped in the Whiteman's occupation. The white man cruelly seized, enslaved, and transported the Africans under ferocious cruelty. In slavery, the colonial powers used them as their instruments to commit crimes against humanity, and fighting against their fellow white powers. The Militaristic French government conscripted the blacks, trained using modern weapons, and used them against the defenseless British, and in fighting their enemies. Morel's article describes the blacks as innocent victims of a white policy that made them kill innocent white men and rape their wives.

Morel faced opposition from authorities and called his accusations as propaganda. They accused Morel of collaborating together with the European press to spread propaganda against the governments involved. A reporter from the Daily News confirmed that the accusations had no substantial evidence, after an investigation in Germany. Some of the African troops stationed in the Rhine land include Senegalese, Moroccans, and Malagese. The British never considered Morel's issue; they dismissed him and his supporters. Morel's appeal was mainly addressing a liberal and labor audience. Overall, Morel did not give up he continued informing people on the "black horror," a term he coined after the black troops cause menace, killings, and raped women in the Rhineland.

McKay a black, in the article claimed that Africans have no power to rule, their inferiority has favored this. The blacks only asked the right to live peacefully and a fair reward for their participation in the Great War of the White. The main thing that Morel emphasizes on is the using the blacks in their troops to fulfill their war. Africans had no option but to follow their masters. His last impact was in Scotland, where the committee on social problems of the united Church of Scotland investigated the charges made against the French troops, and concluded they were true. The church cited Morels writing as proof of their accusations.

Malamuth, M.N. (2001). Pornography. Elsevier Science Ltd.

Pornography refers to all sexually explicit media whose main intent is to arouse the audience sexually. Obscenity means any pornographic material considered illegal by the legal system. Due to advancement in new types of media, for instance the internet, feasibility of governments to restrict pornographic content is very low. Sexually explicit media have various effects including the difference in studies, sexual aggression, and many others. Research on effects of pornography says that sexual criminals were more easily aroused than non-criminals in laboratory studies were. In addition, criminals may be less aroused sexually than non-criminals but likely to engage in sexual activity following exposure of any type.

Man studies suggest that there exist gender differences in consumption of sexually explicit media. In addition, research says that men consume explicit media regularly in comparison to women. In addition, men are sexually aroused, and react less negatively, nudity of the opposite sex compared to their female counterparts. Again, men are more likely to consume explicit media that emphasize sexual communion. The consumption of sexually explicit media might be because of different evolved psychological mechanisms adapting to the available environmental factors.

Research on pornography has faced major influence by individuals whereby ideologies or biased political perspective. These individuals end up providing conclusions on the same, which are self, centered. The biases enhance framing of research questions that develop some studies in a way suited for simple conclusions while discarding the complicated conclusions. This often leads to a single-handed set of conclusions, but research requires multi-handed conclusions, which leave room for discussion. This research leaves the reader with many questions about the credibility of information in such an article.

Gullace, F.N. ().Sexual Violence and Family Honor: British Propaganda and International Law during the First World War. The American Historical Review, (102)3,714-747.

The atrocity propaganda had no gender violence in the sense that it never dealt with acts of cultural destruction, maiming the elderly, and violence against women. It gained prominence in British depiction of war. Scholars had showed great interest in interrelationship of internal affair gender and cultural ideas. The scholars started investigating the importance of the findings of women history. These scholars have started investigating the importance of the findings of the history of women. There is ignorance of the atrocity accounts, which play a principal role in international history and domestic politics.

It was also evident that the propaganda had no political aims, but it exposed the brutality of the German Army. There was a formation of a campaign, which appealed for consciousness in protecting the families. This made it hard for Britain to fight for only freedom in Europe but in detaining their families. The Germans believed that Belgium took part with the guerrilla soldiers from France and forcefully punished the sniper attacks. Bryce, who was a German sympathizer, literally accused the Belgium civilians of militating, and killing a German injured soldier while it was evident that the Germans were the ones who had invaded Belgium.

Bryce had not interviewed any witness who he had claimed was a Belgium refugee in Britain, but rather he collected all the deposition from lawyers who had not taken any oaths. The destruction of the original document at Britain home office made it hard for any investigations carried out. It was clear that the Belgium civilian had not committed any crimes, and the blamed had no ground. The blame should direct to the German soldiers, who had committed serious crimes against the citizen of Belgium in the name of guerrilla soldiers who they claimed had attacked them.

Wilson, T. (1979). Lord Bryce's Investigation into Alleged German Atrocities in Belgium,

Journal of Contemporary History, 14(3), 369-383.

In the 1914, the Belgium government issued three reports on crimes committed the invasion of Belgium. James Bryce chaired German Outrage inquiry Committee, which would conduct a review on the materials, collected as deposition and by doing so provide a report. Specifically the report was to determine whether German soldiers were directly, or led by their official to cause violence, and commit inhuman acts in Belgium that led to thousands of Belgium civilians to be refugees in Britain after German invaded Belgium.

James Bryces had been a British ambassador in Washington. He had sought accommodation in German, well-known to be a German sympathizer and an admirer of their culture. Due to unclear reasons Britain believed in him that, he would have brought credible and truthful information. In the beginning of 1915, Harold Cox began to have doubts on how the Bryce's investigation. He requested that all the witness interviewed to do it again; he also threatened to resign from the committee if his request did not get an honor. Bryces agreed, and he had to re-write the report and assured Cox to reject any evidence he suspected to be a fraud. The committee had interviewed 1200 witnesses in which 500 statements included in the report. There were also additional 37 personal diaries found on the German dead soldiers. The information collected by the British lawyers was mainly to collect the witness accounts. The committee wrote all its findings in a legal way to appear professional. The deposition and evidence ware then analyzed and stored at British Home Office for protection.