Psychological Egoism

Ordinary thinking concerning morality from the author's perspective is "full of assumptions that we almost never question. We assume, for example, that we have an obligation to consider the welfare of other people when we decide what actions have to perform of what rules to obey" (Rachels, 2011 p. 51). In other words people have to generate some kind of filter for when they perform certain actions in order to avoid causing harm to others and respecting the interests and rights of those one comes in contact with.

Furthermore other things that come into consideration within the thought process of morality is that people are not wholly selfish and to some degree have a level of selflessness in their interactions, acting in the interest of other individuals and groups. Moral sceptics on the other hand criticize such assumptions. These criticisms go back as far as in Plato's Republic.

Using the story of the ring of invisibility and the power it brings like seduction of the Queen and the murder of the King, and the taking of the throne provides a counterargument to the concept of morality and all that it is perceived to encompass. In the article Rachels presents an example from Glaucon of a rogue and a virtuous man. The assumption here is the rogue will do as he pleases in order to seize power.

He would do this because under the protection of invisibility he is not afraid of getting caught nor of facing any negative consequences, therefore he has nothing restraining him from committing wrongful acts and has in other words, no sense of morality to determine his actions. Some might say that he is a rogue and therefore that is expected of him. But Glaucon contends that the virtuous man would act in the same manner because of that same expectation of not facing negative consequences for his actions.

So here, in this example, the article than states through Glaucon's perspective, that no one has the strength of mind to behave in a moral and upstanding way under these circumstances. Therefore fear of reprisal is what confines an individual to perform under moral standards and lack of fear of reprisal thus destroys any morality within the individual. Glaucon presents an argument that if there is no advantage to being moral, like evading negative consequences, than most if not all people will stand to become immoral.

These skeptical viewpoints Glaucon made are known to be termed: ethical egoism and psychological egoism. Essentially these terms elude to the fact that people are selfish and the only thing that keeps them from behaving immorally is motivated by self-interest. "On this view, even when men are acting in ways apparently calculated to benefit others, they are actually motivated by the belief that acting in this way is to their own advantage" (Rachels, 2011 p.

52) Rachels argues than that not everything is motivated by selfishness but rather obligation, thus providing a reason as to why he rejects psychological egoism. 2. Psychological egoism in the example Rachels later gives about a person staying behind to help his friend instead of going to the country is something fueled by an obligation, or rather a means to an end. Although he makes it sounds as though this cannot be selfish, it is in fact in some way selfish.

It is because he wants to create a sense of loyalty and trust amongst himself and his friend, or perhaps because he enjoys the feeling of being needed. There are too many possibilities and reasons behind why people do things that they do not want to do, many of which are ultimately for self-interest. Another example Rachels uses is going to the dentist. His flaw in his logic is that he is associating selfishness with wanting to do something.

In reality, selfishness is related to outcomes that ultimately benefit the person. Going to the dentist is not something wants to do, but has to in order to avoid a much grim fate of getting root canals and losing teeth. If one were to look at the future aspects of these decisions, it leads to self-interest. Glaucon explained in his example of the ring of invisibility that morality rests on gaining an advantage and this can still be applied to the examples Rachels gives in his argument.

The friend gains advantage by bonding with his friend who he may later request help from in the future. The person who goes to the dentist will gain an advantage in terms of self-interest by having healthy teeth. Most if not all actions that are deemed selfless are ultimately selfless because it leads inevitably to the outcome of self-interest.