Rhythm and Blues Artist James

¶ … rhythm and blues artist James Brown, "This is a man's world (Newsome)." In his song, It's a Man's, Man's Man's World, Brown goes on to list things that the male gender has created and contributed to society, such as the train, boats, and the car; all to ease the heavy load of life. Following these chauvinistic statements is the hard-hitting line that gives the song a chance at redemption. It would mean nothing, nothing without a woman or a girl. Throughout history, and even biblically, women have commonly existed in tandem to men, having to follow and hardly being given the chance to lead.

Walking into this class I could have never have anticipated what I was to learn this past semester. Growing up as a first generation American in a Middle-Eastern, Orthodox home, I was quite sheltered. I was unaware of the self-inflicted prejudices I had come to hold and the restraints they created within me. It was an eye-opening experience, that made me re-evaluate everything I had been raised to believe, and the ways of life I had blindly followed like a sheep in a herd. However, contrary to popular belief, ignorance is not always correlated to blissfulness.

I. Introduction

My own revelations regarding my own background and heritage have caused me to become more interested in the plight of women from other cultures. Two of the cultures that have spiked my interest are China and Afghanistan. These cultures have received considerable attention in the past few years for different reasons. The women in Afghanistan have received attention due to the political conflicts occurring within their nation's borders (Howlett). The world press has spent time searching for stories as a result of these conflicts and one of the stories that has found an interesting following is the plight of Afghan women. The press, most of whom are from Western Europe and North American media outlets, has made a major issue of the treatment received by the Afghan women. This treatment may indeed be bothersome but little attention has been afforded the cultural reasons for this treatment or what can be done to remedy the situation.

Chinese women have also received considerable attention but not because of the presence of the foreign press but because of political conflicts within the country. Interestingly, for the first time in many years the political situation within China has settled down and, in the process, the Chinese people are escaping years of isolation and emerging as part of the international community (Stiftung). The attention being afforded China is related to their sudden and influential participation as an economic participant in the world market place (Woo). For most of its history China has positioned itself either on the periphery or outside the world market and the fact that they have now taken such an aggressive approach has intrigued everyone and the demand for information regarding their culture, their history, and their economy is escalating daily (Padilla). In the process, the press, like they have in Afghanistan, has searched for a variety of story lines and how the Chinese women have been treated culturally and historically has been the focus of many of these stories.

The examination of these two cultures of women brings to the surface two groups of women with clear differences. These differences will be reviewed but the similarities in their status will also be examined. Regardless of the cause both Chinese and Afghan women have been oppressed and placed in a position of subordination that Westerners find bothersome and intolerable. Perhaps with more information and explanations a greater understanding of both cultures can be attained and an enlightened approach can be developed that assists both cultures in their transition to the modern world.

II. History of Afghan Women

The treatment by the Taliban of women inside Afghanistan is notorious. It has been the source of much discussion in recent years and has even been used by some as a justification for the United States military presence in Afghanistan (Ellis). The fact is, however, that the deplorable situation of the Afghan women preceded the Taliban, and if fact, some of the prior ruling regimes in Afghanistan have treated women far worse than the Taliban ever has. Viewing the plight of women inside Afghanistan purely from a before and after Taliban does the Afghan women a disservice.

To fully understand the position of women in Afghan culture it is necessary to examine the background in which these women live. Most of Afghanistan consists of very rugged terrain with the majority of the population living in rural areas. Some modernizations has occurred in and near the Kabul region but for the most part Afghans live like they have lived for hundreds of years (Countries and Their Cultures). The rural areas of Afghanistan are sparsely populated and are dominated by tribal powers. These rural communities are typically patriarchal and gender roles are determined by tribal traditions and the dictates of the Quran. Afghanistan is historically an Islam country and the influence of the Quran here is quite pervasive.

The present state of women in Afghanistan is not good but this has not always been the case. During the twentieth century there were two brief periods when the status of women inside Afghanistan actually showed improvement. These two periods were totally unrelated to each other in how they occurred but they demonstrated that the potential exists for change.

The first period of improvement occurred during the reign of Amanullah (Poullada). Amanullah Khan ruled Afghanistan from 1919 to 1929 after leading the country to independence from the United Kingdom. During the ten years of his reign, he attempted to initiate dramatic political and social change inside Afghanistan. For the first time in Afghan history women were encouraged to attend schools and centuries old traditions such as strict dress codes for women were relaxed. Amanullah publicly campaigned against the practice of polygamy in Afghanistan and demonstrated his support for monogamy by marry his wife, Queen Soraya Tarzi. The Queen actually took an active role in the governing of the country and in the setting of social and political policy. Through her example, many women publicly participated in organizations throughout Afghanistan and actually held public positions. Such involvement was unheard of previously in Afghanistan. Unfortunately, Amanullah's modernization efforts were met with much opposition. He was able to put down one early revolt but eventually fell victim to reactionary forces inside the country. The policy that caused Amanullah to lose favor with the masses was his institution of allowing women to choose their own partners and abolishment of selling of brides. Amanullah eventually abdicated in 1929. Once Amanullah's reign ended so did most of the pro-western type social reforms that he supported.

The second period of reform occurred during the early 1970's when a member of the family of the then king of Afghanistan, Muhammad Zahir Shah, an individual known as Daoud overthrew the king and installed himself as president. His designating himself as president, however, was in name only. Although a republic had been declared established in Afghanistan free elections were never held and Daoud was essentially a dictator. Daoud, however, did manage to initiate a series of reforms similar to those brought into prominence by Amanullah. The period saw women become members of university faculties and members of Parliament. Bride selling was again prohibited and the minimum age for marriage was raised to 16. An attempt at granting equal rights to women but before said reform could be enacted the reactionary forces picked up their efforts and social change never occurred.

Daoud had come to power through the assistance of a communist underground party named the Peoples Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) who had assisted under the understanding that their members would receive key government positions in exchange (Gall). Daoud, however, failed to honor his agreement and the Peoples Democratic Party managed to eventually seize power from Daoud. The PDPA, which was closely aligned with Soviet Russia, began to intensify reforms but, like Amanlluah before them, the PDPA met with fierce opposition from tribal and religious authorities and the reforms had to be slowed down and, eventually, cut back. The PDPA's push for social reform inside Afghanistan led to the ten-year war between Afghanistan and the Soviet Union, the birth of Mujahideen groups inside Afghanistan, and the decline of women's status to the levels of the 19th century.

These two brief periods of reform in Afghanistan demonstrate that there is some support within the country for adopting a more modern approach to the role of women in society. Unfortunately for the Afghan women these periods of reform have been short-lived and have been marked by subsequent reactionary periods where the reforms have been abolished. It should be pointed out that the movement toward reform has occurred in and around Kabul and that the forces fighting against reform have been based in the rural areas of Afghanistan. This rural/urban divide is strong inside Afghanistan and it characterizes the continued struggle within the country. Kabul is a cosmopolitan center and demonstrates a willingness to modernize but outside Kabul old traditions remain strong and there is little interest in these rural areas for any change.

III. Social Factors

The rural nature of Afghan society cannot be over-emphasized. The population of the country is estimated at 24 million but it is highly fragmented into a variety of ethnic groups that are further broken down into tribal groups. This tribal fragmentation has been encouraged by the countries bordering Afghanistan that have, in order to promote their own political agendas, disturbed any efforts by the Afghan central government from uniting these tribes. What has developed is a system of ethnically-based rivalries supported by localized Islamic religious sects.

Tribal traditions inside Afghanistan tend to be more powerful than either Islamic theology or political philosophy and these traditions can be harsh toward women (Rohde). Gender roles under tribal traditions are based upon patriarchal control and women are placed in subordinate positions. Under the terms of most ancient tribal laws marriage is considered as a method of building alliances between groups within tribes and, on occasion, larger alliances between tribes. As a result, women are forced into roles where they are used as pawns in the forming of these alliances, never allowed to divorce, and destined to live in total obedience first to their fathers and, then, to their husband. Under this system there is no perceived reason for women to seek education. They are expected to administer to everyday domestic affairs, remain obedient, and quiet. The feminist scholar, Valentine Moghadam, argues that the women's rights in Afghanistan have been typified by: 1) the patriarchal nature of gender and social relations deeply embedded in traditional communities and 2) the existence of a weak central state that has been unable to implement modernizing programs and goals in the fact of "tribal feudalism (Moghadam)."

As earlier indicated, there have been numerous attempts throughout Afghan history toward instituting social reforms involving the rights of women but such changes have been short-lived. These changes have failed largely due to the influence of tribal leaders from the rural areas of the country. These leaders have seen social reforms as being too western and in violation of the doctrines of Islam, meanwhile, the regular members of the tribes viewed the proposed reforms as a challenge to their familial and tribal authority and the loss of financial security gained by strategically arranged marriages. Particularly bothersome for these individuals were the abolition of bride selling, polygamy, and the introduction of education for women. It should be pointed out that the changes that were made occurred primarily within close proximity to Kabul and that the changes never really occurred in the towns and villages where most Afghans lived. The tribes were fearful that such changes might expand beyond the borders of Kabul and, therefore, they fought hard to prevent this from occurring.

Interestingly, the present diminished position of women in Afghan society owes its origin to events surrounding the Soviet's occupation of Afghanistan (Mendelson). During the Soviet occupation women had begun to enjoy improving status. They began to emerge as teachers, doctors, and lawyers but the ensuing battle between the Afghans and Soviets echoed in an era of anarchy and destruction. The Mujahideen forces, loosely organized guerillas, funded partially by the United States, worked to drive the Soviets out of Afghanistan (Grau). These Mujahideen were largely radical followers of Islam and they pronounced a reversal of the policies initiated by the Soviets including any and all reforms guaranteeing women liberties. The Mujahideen were eventually successful in driving the Soviets from the country and as they assumed power they declared Afghanistan as an Islam state. As they did so, the Mujahideen began a period of turning back the clock on women's rights in Afghanistan and a period of oppression characterized by killings, rapes, amputations and other forms of violence.

Once United States authorities who had previously supported the Mujahideen during the Soviet occupation realized that such support had been imprudently placed they turned their loyalties toward the Taliban (U.S. State Department). The Taliban replaced the Mujahideen briefly as the ruling authority in Afghanistan but it did not result in any significant change. The status of women under both groups closely resembled the situation that had existed in Afghanistan for most of its history but this time such treatment was partially ratified by the United States in its role as a financial benefactor of both groups.

IV. Rise of Islam Fundamentalism

Beginning in the early 1980's the world began to witness the spread of Islamic fundamentalism (Hiro). It was Islamic fundamentalists that overthrew the pro-Western regime of the Shah of Iran, attacked the Mosque in Mecca, assassinated Sadat in Egypt, and blew up the U.S. Marine base barracks in Beirut. The Taliban in Afghanistan are followers of Islam fundamentalism.

Fundamental Islam takes a different approach from that of Traditional Islam. Followers of Traditional Islam believe that it is their duty to convert the rest of humanity to their religion but they have taken the approach that such events will occur at some point in the future and without the need for aggressive, violent intervention. Fundamental Islam, meanwhile, advocates the concept of jihad and views it their responsibility to defeat the infidels by whatever means possible. In doing so, the Fundamentalist argue that the law of Islam, including those leading to the oppression of women in the modern view, must be implemented in every detail.

The rise of Islam fundamentalism has opened the century old debate regarding Western and Middle Eastern views on a variety of matters not the least of which is the role of women in society. (Care should be taken here as fundamentalists in all religions tend to take a similar view in their attitudes toward the role of women in society.) What has transpired in Afghanistan is a return to the view that the family lies at the heart of the family and that religion is the ultimate protector of the family unit. In that setting women are seen as subordinate to men and maintaining them in that position ensures that the family unit will be maintained. Allowing women to become educated, employed or allowed to own property and they are no longer subordinate and ultimately the family is destroyed and, eventually, so is the community.

The rise of Fundamental Islam has ensured that the society that has existed in Afghanistan and elsewhere for centuries will continue. For the Fundamentalists avoiding any tinge of Western society is the only way for Islam to prosper. Thus, strict adherence to Islamic principles is a necessity. In the process the oppression of women continues.

V. History of Chinese Women

Like their sisters in Afghanistan any current oppression of women inside China is not a new development. Such practices were part of the Chinese culture long before the days of the Communist regime in China. Based on the teachings of Confucius, the primary religious figure in China, women are not equal to men and, therefore, not worthy of any literary training or in the need of any education (Cleary). For thousands of years, Chinese women lived a nearly unbearable existence. They were required to follow the dictates of their father, brothers, and other male members of their family. They lacked a say in nearly every phase of their lives. There lack of status in Chinese culture was so severe they were often not even named at the time of their birth. Instead, daughters would be referred to as "daughter number one" and "daughter number two (Hinsch)."

This situation did not change as women became married. Her husband replaced her father and she was expected to follow his directions the same as she had her father. Divorce was strictly prohibited and if her husband should become deceased she was not allowed to remarry under the penalty of death if she should. Under ancient Chinese doctrine a women's responsibility was to bear and raise sons.

Under Confucianism a strict patriarchal culture developed and women became to be viewed as objects for man's pleasure, and they could be taken or disposed of in any manner. Women had little to say as to what happened to them and this right extended to their daughters as well. This inability to protect themselves included the right to protect themselves from the wanton desires of men and women became nothing more than sexual commodities for the men in society.

The need for women to obtain an education in Chinese culture was non-existence. The typical Chinese women spent the majority of her life in seclusion tending to domestic duties and these were the fortunate ones who were able to avoid infanticide. For much of Chinese history, girls were viewed as financial burdens to the family and, as a result, infanticide was practiced as a means of ensuring that a family would not be overwhelmed by the costs of raising a female child.

Confucianism was not the only religion in China that professed repressive attitudes toward women. The other two primary religions of China, Buddhism and Taoism, had similar approaches and viewed women as a threat to the development of society. Not surprisingly, therefore, the history of China prior to the 20th century contains little reference to the contributions of women on any level.

The end of the 19th century saw a remarkable change in the way that women were treated inside China. The influx of missionaries into China and the 1898 Reform Movement, which was a failed attempt by then Guangxu Emperor to introduce major social innovations, resulted in women from the elite classes to experience some limited liberation (Bickers). The missionaries who entered China were convinced that the way that the Chinese treated their women was a contributing factor to their backwardness. The missionaries also brought with them Western ideas and innovations and things Western became fashionable in Chinese society. One of these fashions was the participation of women in social activities. For a period of a few years this brought some measure of liberalization for Chinese women but this trend was short-lived. Following the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1912 and the formation of the Republic of China women began to take on far more responsibilities and be allowed additional rights and privileges and as the battle between the Nationalists and Communists intensified before, during, and after the Second World War women participated heavily on behalf of both sides of the conflict.

The fact that the Communists eventually prevailed worked to the benefit of Chinese women in their battle for social privileges. The new Communist government in keeping with their basic principle of equality stressed the fact that women and men were to be deemed equal. In reality, the role of women remained subordinate to those of men but their station did improve substantially but, in many ways, even with the Communist Party in control women were still bound to traditional views.

The influence of traditional religions such as Confucianism had dominated Chinese culture and society for many centuries. The rhetoric of the Chinese leaders may have stated otherwise but the old traditions and practices that had existed were not so easily changed. The traditional Chinese ethical codes included the four virtues: 1) proper speech; 2) modest manner; 3) diligent work; and, 4) filial piety. Strict adherence to these virtues, even after the emergence of the Communist Party, made it difficult for Chinese women to engage in social activities. Even in Communist China, women were expected to be good wives and daughters but some of the social policies of the Communists did open the door for Chinese women.

The Communist Party ceased the practice of female infanticide and the provisions of the Marriage Law and Agrarian Reform Law enacted in 1950 gave women the right to own property regardless of their marital status and the collateral right to become farmers. The same law outlawed arranged marriages and polygamy, legalized divorce, and established a minimum marital age for both men and women (Shambaugh). These legal changes plus the Communist belief that everyone in society must work to contribute to the common good freed women to break from patriarchal control and to establish themselves in society.

Despite these changes centuries of habits and behavior do not change overnight. Laws were enacted proclaiming equal rights for women but the men in control of the tools of government were not so eager for change. Women attempted to exercise their rights after the passage of the Marriage Law but the support necessary for them to do so was not readily forthcoming. Women seeking divorces met with strong opposition from their families and government officials which in the case of families often led to violence against the women. It was not unheard of to have husbands actually turn their wives, who were seeking divorces, into government officials as traders against the state. As to the land reform provision, few women were ever granted land in their own names. Instead, the property was still generally granted to some male member of the household.

The official Communist position was to allow women to work in factories like men but they were paid less for their efforts and women were still expected to be responsible for the same domestic work that they had always done. Men's roles remained essentially the same and, as a result, women in Communist China found it difficult to make any significant advancement outside the home. It should also be pointed out that the Chinese Government's movement at this point on gender equality was not intended as an equalization effort but was motivated by an attempt to take advantage of the labor of that was not being utilized. Increased production was the goal and the Government could no longer afford to ignore fifty-percent of the population. Unfortunately, there were not enough hours in the day for women to work in the factories, do the housework, raise the children, and care for their husbands. Women had been freed to work outside the home but, in essence, their true roles had not been altered.

VI. Changes Begin

Two actions by the Communist Party, the Cultural Revolution and a program to increase education and literacy inside China resulted in a breakdown in gender differences that had existed. The Cultural Revolution resulted in barriers that had served to limit women's participation in politics and other public spheres being removed. Although the Cultural Revolution was looked upon as a failure it did open some doors for Chinese women and when the Government increased its emphasis on education after the end of the Cultural Revolution it was Chinese women who benefited most. Before the Cultural Revolution literacy among Chinese women was extremely low. Only 28% of girls attended elementary school in 1951, this figure increased to 38% by 1958, and by Mao's death in 1976 45% of all school-aged girls in China were attending (Hooper). This increased level of education and the continued efforts by the Communist Party to emphasize equality between the sexes served to result in a barriers being removed for women in Chinese society.

The move toward a more liberal attitude regarding women's role in society did not spread throughout China uniformly. As China moved in the direction of becoming a participating member in the world economy, women began to take a more active role in society in the areas where exposure to Western ideas and products were most prevalent but in the countryside the gender distinction and inequality between the sexes continued. Bride purchasing that had existed for centuries and female infanticide continued. In these areas, the attitude continued that sons were important in maintaining the family name and as source of labor but girls were both a financial burden and, once married, contributed to the welfare of their new families and not to their birth family.

VII. Modern China and Globalization

The economic changes in China over the past several years have impacted women substantially. Guaranteed employment was once a state sponsored program in China as the Government controlled all aspects of the economy. As China prepared to join the international community and open its markets to the rest of the world, guaranteed employment is no longer a state philosophy and it is the Chinese women who have suffered most in the way of lost employment opportunities. Job opportunities have been lessened and, although migration from the countryside into the cities is prohibited by the Government, millions of former peasants arrive in China cities looking for work. Many of these job seekers are young women who have been abandoned by their families because they could no longer afford to provide for them.

The new economy has also seen the proliferation of a large number of Chinese women who have been the beneficiaries of quality educations provided due to the Government's sponsorship of educational programs for women. Unfortunately, the new Chinese economy is unable to absorb the numbers of educated women that are available. The result is that these women find themselves competing with men who are stilled looked upon more favorably by employers as the last vestiges of gender bias remain in the upper echelons of Chinese businesses.

The changes that have occurred in Chinese society since the dawning of the twentieth century have affected everyone living in China but the most profound changes have been felt by Chinese women. Having lived through the influence of Confucius, the rapid and sometime inconsistent changes brought about the Communist Party, and the pressures brought about by the adoption of the free market economy and globalization the Chinese women have endured these changes in stride and adapted to the changing political winds. For the most part the changes were brought about by decisions made by men but women played an essential role in how these changes were absorbed into their daily lives.

Despite the changes the family unit remains an essential element of Chinese culture and women remain the backbone of the family in China. Communism opened up employment opportunities for women outside the home but Chinese culture still demands that women be responsible for maintaining the family home, be responsible for promoting family values, and take care of their husbands. What has transpired in China is a type of hybrid of traditional values combined with newly adopted Western values. Chinese culture still demonstrates respect for its eldest members, children are still cherished, and marriage remains a valued institution. Present day women in China are desperately seeking a new identity and it remains to see how they which traditional values remain and which new modern values they adopt.

VIII. Comparison

The Afghan and Chinese women share a history that is relatively similar but they are facing a future that is likely to be much different. Both nations' women spent the better part of their history being heavily oppressed and playing subordinate roles in their society. In these roles, however, women were relied heavily upon by their culture as the support for maintaining the integrity of the culture. As mothers, daughters, sisters, and wives women have directed the family home. Neither the Afghan or Chinese women played a significant role outside the confines of the family home. The family home represented the world for the Afghan and Chinese women. This situation characterized the life of both Afghan and Chinese women for hundreds of years.

For most Afghan women and many Chinese women their lives are the same as their ancestors' lives. Little has changed for women in rural Afghanistan and the China countryside. They remain uneducated, they were possibly purchased by their husband to be his wife, they have never ventured more than a few miles from her birth home, they obey their husbands just as they did their fathers, and they have no aspirations beyond the confines of their homes. Little has changed over the years and nothing is likely to change at any point in the near future. The world has moved on but these women have been left behind.