What Screen Time and Dopamine Do to Kids Brains

Effects of Screen Time on Children

Introduction

What do we know about the effects of screen time use of smartphones, tablets and game consoles, among children ages 10 to 15 and academic achievement? This literature review intends to answer that question.

Screen time may affect children in different ways for a variety of reasons. The content of screen time can vary widely, from educational programs to violent video games to social media platforms (Twenge et al., 2018). Different types of content may have different effects on children's cognitive, emotional, and social development (Brown & Bobkowski, 2011). Also, children's developmental needs and abilities change as they grow and mature, which may affect how they respond to screen time (Radesky et al., 2014). For example, young children may benefit from educational programs that reinforce basic skills like letter recognition, while older children may benefit from more complex content that challenges their critical thinking skills (Kostyrka-Allchorne et al., 2017). Moreover, the amount of time children spend on screens can also affect their development. Excessive screen time may interfere with other important activities, such as physical activity, social interaction, and sleep, which can have negative consequences for children's health and well-being (Li et al., 2020). Plus, the context in which screen time occurs may also influence its effects. For example, watching a movie with parents may provide an opportunity for shared learning and bonding, while using screens to distract children during meals or bedtime may interfere with family routines and social interaction (Pea et al., 2012). Finally, individual differences in children's personalities, interests, and learning styles may also affect how they respond to screen time. Some children may be more sensitive to screen content or find it more engaging, while others may be more resistant or prefer other types of activities (Duch et al., 2013). Thus, for all these reasons, it is important to understand how the effects of screen time can impact children, particularly with respect to academic achievement, as school is the place where children are set to establish foundations for their future.

Literature Review

Screen time use of smartphones, tablets and game consoles is increasingly prevalent among children aged 10 to 15. As a result, there has been growing concern among parents, educators and researchers about the potential effects of screen time on children's academic achievement. This literature review aims to provide an overview of the current research on the effects of screen time use on academic achievement among children aged 10 to 15.

Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria

Typical criteria and methods for conducting a literature review include:

Inclusion criteria that are:

· Relevant to the research question/topic

· Published within a certain time period

· Published in a specific language

· Empirical research (e.g., not opinion articles, editorials)

Exclusion criteria that are:

· Irrelevant to the research question/topic

· Published outside of the time period or language specified

· Not empirical research

Methods such as:

· Conducting a comprehensive search of relevant databases and sources (e.g., PsycINFO, Google Scholar)

· Screening titles and abstracts of identified articles based on inclusion/exclusion criteria

· Reading full texts of potentially relevant articles to determine inclusion or exclusion

· Extracting relevant data and information from included articles

· Synthesizing findings and drawing conclusions

To be included in this review, studies had to meet the following criteria:

1. Published in peer-reviewed journals in the last 10 years (2011-2021).

2. Conducted on children (preferably aged 10 to 15, but studies that focused on younger children were also included due to lack of relevant material on the target age group).

3. Investigated the effects of screen time use of smartphones, tablets, game consoles, or any type of media involving the use of screen on attention, cognition, self-regulation, or academic achievement.

4. Included either qualitative or quantitative data obtained in relation to this issue.

Because few studies have actually evaluated the effects of screen time on academic performance some leeway had to be made to meet the demand for ten studies for this review. Therefore, studies from different countries were included and studies of children outside the preferred target group were also included, even if they focused on issues such as self-regulation, since self-regulation does pertain to academic development.

Methods

A systematic search of the databases of Google Scholar and PsycINFO was conducted using the keywords "screen time," "smartphones," "tablets," "game consoles," "children," "academic achievement," and "cognitive development." The search was limited to studies published in English and conducted on human participants. After screening titles and abstracts, full-text articles were obtained for further assessment. Finally, 10 studies were identified that met the inclusion criteria.

Review of the Studies

The study by Radesky et al. (2014) aimed to examine the association between parent-reported self-regulation problems in early childhood and media exposure at age 2, including television and video viewing. They used data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort, which included 7,450 children. The study found that children with poor self-regulation at 9 months, as measured by the Infant Toddler Symptom Checklist, consumed an average of 0.23 hours more media per day at age 2 than children with better self-regulation. Children with persistent self-regulation problems were even more likely to consume media, with an adjusted beta of 0.21 hours per day. The study suggests that understanding the relationship between self-regulation and media exposure could help parents reduce their children's screen time. In other words, children exposed to more screen time tended to have greater problems with self-regulation than did children with less screen time. The finding suggests that screen time might negatively impact a child’s ability to self-regulate emotions. One possible explanation for this could be the effect of screen time on the body’s dopamine regulation, as engaging with media and screens at any age involves a dopamine response, which is inherently similar to the kind of response associated with taking drugs.

The study by Kostyrka-Allchorne et al. (2017) is a systematic review of literature on the association between television viewing and children's executive function, academic performance, attention, language, and play. They reviewed 76 studies and found that the relationship between television viewing and children's development is complex and likely depends on individual characteristics, family and social context, as well as the features of the television content and type of exposure. In other words, media exposure and screen time is just one of many factors that go into shaping children and how they think and behave. They found that watching high-quality educational content during preschool years improves basic academic skills and predicts subsequent positive academic performance, while television viewing in infancy is disruptive to play and associated with inattentive/hyperactive behaviors, lower executive functions, and language delay, at least in the short-term. The researchers admit that it remains unclear whether these interactions between television and cognition are long-lasting. Thus, they conclude by suggesting that future research should focus on investigating the pathways that link particular components of television and type of exposure with individual and contextual factors to better understand their potential unique and combined effects on development, and address the challenge of investigating the diverse and rapidly changing technologies to which the current generation of children are exposed.

The study by Li et al. (2020) investigated the relationship between mobile phone addiction and sleep quality in Chinese adolescents, and examined the mediating role of rumination and moderating role of mindfulness. The study found that rumination partially mediated the relationship between mobile phone addiction and poor sleep quality. Additionally, mindfulness moderated the effect of mobile phone addiction on sleep quality and the mediating effect of rumination, with both effects being stronger for individuals with lower mindfulness. This study provides insight into the mechanisms underlying the relationship between mobile phone addiction and poor sleep quality, and highlights the importance of mindfulness as a protective factor.

The study by Brown & Bobkowski (2011) reviews research on the use and effects of older and newer media on adolescents' health and well-being. The study provides an examination of patterns of media use among adolescents and discusses predictors and effects of those patterns on adolescents' mental health. It also reviews research on the effects of exposure to specific kinds of media content on adolescents' behaviors and health outcomes. Additionally, the study considers media literacy as a promising strategy for enhancing adolescents' use of the media in the future. The researchers also note that reducing the amount of time children spend watching television can reduce aggression, as shown by a field experiment. Interestingly, the study mentions that a meta-analysis of more than 200 studies investigating the effect of television violence on aggressive and antisocial behavior found a moderate correlation between the two as well as between screen time and academic performance. This review suggests that screen time needs to be regulated as it does impact children and their ability to focus, grow, and develop themselves on a number of fronts, including the academic front.

The study by Aguilar et al. (2015) aimed to investigate the association between physical fitness and academic attainment in schoolchildren and the potential influence of screen time on this relationship. The study included 395 schoolchildren from seven schools in Chile, with an average age of 12.1 years. Results showed that good cardiorespiratory fitness levels were positively associated with higher language and mean academic attainment grades in both genders. However, after adjusting for screen time and other potential confounders, these associations disappeared. Additionally, no relationship was observed for children who spent more than 2 hours per day on screen time. The study suggests that policymakers and parents should minimize the negative effects of screen time on children's lives to maximize the beneficial effect of healthy habits on academic attainment.

The study by Faught et al. (2017) aimed to investigate the independent and combined associations of lifestyle behaviors (diet, physical activity, sleep, and screen time) and body weight status with academic achievement in grade 5 students. The study included 4253 students and their parents, who were surveyed about the child’s lifestyle behaviors, and their heights and weights were measured. Academic achievement was measured using provincial standardized exams in mathematics, reading, and writing. The study found that meeting dietary recommendations, screen time, and sleep was associated with meeting academic expectations for different subjects. Moreover, meeting additional lifestyle behavior recommendations was associated with a higher likelihood of meeting expectations. The researchers concluded that body weight status was not associated with academic achievement but that too much screen time and not enough other healthy habits (like exercise) did negatively correlate with academic performance for this age group. Thus, the study suggests that promoting compliance with established healthy lifestyle recommendations could improve both the health and educational outcomes of school-aged children.

The study by Duch et al. (2013) aimed to systematically review literature published between January 1999 and January 2013 on the correlates of screen time among children between 0 and 36 months of age. The study identified 29 studies that met the inclusion criteria and investigated a total of 33 potential correlates. The study found that demographic variables most commonly correlated with high screen time among infants and toddlers were the child's age (older) and race/ethnicity (minority). Child BMI, maternal distress/depression, television viewing time of the mother, and cognitive stimulation in the home environment were also associated with screen media use. However, the study did not specifically focus on the relationship between screen time and academic performance in young children. It did note, nonetheless, that screen time had been identified by some studies as a factor in poor academic performance among children up to seven years of age. Overall, the study identified avenues for intervention to reduce screen time use in young children, but suggested that further research is necessary to explore a number of environmental, socio-cultural, and behavioral correlates that are under-examined in this population and may further inform prevention and intervention strategies.

The study by Pea et al. (2012) aimed to explore the relationships between media use, including screen time, and social well-being in young girls aged 8-12. The study used an online survey conducted through Discovery Girls magazine and collected data on various forms of media use, including video, video games, music listening, reading/homework, e-mailing/posting on social media sites, texting/instant messaging, and talking on phones/video chatting. The study also introduced a comparative measure of media use versus time spent in face-to-face communication. The findings of the study indicated that negative social well-being was positively associated with levels of media use that are centered around interpersonal interaction, such as phone and online communication, as well as media use that is not, such as video, music, and reading. Video use was found to be particularly strongly associated with negative social well-being indicators, while face-to-face communication was strongly associated with positive social well-being. Media multitasking was also found to be associated with negative social indicators. However, the study found that cell phone ownership and having a television or computer in one's room had little direct association with children's socioemotional well-being. The authors of the study suggest possible causes for these relationships and call for research designs to address causality and outline possible implications of such findings for the social well-being of younger adolescents. Overall, the study highlights the potential negative impact of certain forms of media use, such as video use and media multitasking, on young girls' social well-being. However, the study also suggests that not all forms of screen time are associated with negative social well-being, as having a television or computer in one's room did not have a significant impact on socioemotional well-being.

The study by Lapierre et al. (2015) aimed to determine the amount of background television that children are exposed to in the United States and to identify demographic factors associated with increased exposure to background television. The researchers also investigated how certain home media practices are linked to children’s background television exposure. The study involved a nationally representative telephone survey of US parents/caregivers with one child between the ages of 8 months and 8 years. Parents were asked to report on their child’s exposure to background television via a 24-hour time diary and to report relevant home media behaviors related to their child, such as bedroom television ownership, number of televisions in the home, and how often a television was on in the home. The results showed that the average US child was exposed to 232.2 minutes of background television on a typical day, which is a concerning amount. The study also found that younger children and African American children were exposed to more background television. Leaving the television on while no one is viewing and children’s bedroom television ownership were associated with increased background television exposure. Overall, the study highlights the negative consequences associated with background television and provides potential pathways for practitioners to reduce children’s exposure to it. However, it is worth noting that the study did not explicitly investigate the relationship between background television exposure and academic performance.

The study by Kabali et al. (2015) aimed to investigate young children’s exposure to and use of mobile media devices. The cross-sectional study included 350 children aged 6 months to 4 years from an urban, low-income, minority community. The survey was adapted from Common Sense Media’s 2013 nationwide survey. The results showed that most households had television (97%), tablets (83%), and smartphones (77%). Half of the children at age 4 had their own television and three-fourths had their own mobile device. Almost all children (96.6%) used mobile devices, and most started using before age 1. Parents gave children devices when doing house chores (70%), to keep them calm (65%), and at bedtime (29%). At age 2, most children used a device daily and spent comparable screen time on television and mobile devices. Most 3- and 4-year-olds used devices without help, and one-third engaged in media multitasking. Content delivery applications such as YouTube and Netflix were popular. The study found that child ownership of the device, age at first use, and daily use were not associated with ethnicity or parent education. In conclusion, the study suggests that young children from an urban, low-income, minority community have almost universal exposure to mobile devices, and most have their own device by age 4. The patterns of use suggest early adoption, frequent and independent use, and media multitasking. The study recommends that updated recommendations for families and providers on the use of mobile media by young children are urgently needed. Even though the study does not directly address the effects of all this screen time on academic performance, it is clear that children are inundated by screen time and this is likely to impact all aspects of their life.

The study by Twenge et al. (2018) examines the relationship between screen time and psychological well-being among US adolescents. The study utilized nationally representative surveys of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders from 1991-2016, with a sample size of over 1.1 million participants. The study found that psychological well-being (measured by self-esteem, life satisfaction, and happiness) suddenly decreased after 2012, and adolescents who spent more time on electronic communication and screens (e.g., social media, the Internet, texting, gaming) and less time on nonscreen activities (e.g., in-person social interaction, sports/exercise, homework, attending religious services) had lower psychological well-being. The study also found that adolescents spending a small amount of time on electronic communication were the happiest. Furthermore, the study revealed that psychological well-being was lower in years when adolescents spent more time on screens and higher in years when they spent more time on nonscreen activities. The changes in activities generally preceded declines in well-being. The study suggests that the rapid adoption of smartphones and the subsequent shift in adolescents’ time use may be at least partially responsible for the decrease in psychological well-being among US adolescents. Cyclical economic indicators such as unemployment were not significantly correlated with well-being, indicating that the Great Recession was not the cause of the decrease in psychological well-being. Overall, the study provides important insights into the relationship between screen time and psychological well-being among US adolescents. The findings suggest that reducing screen time and promoting nonscreen activities may be important strategies for improving psychological well-being among adolescents. However, it is important to note that this study does not examine directly the relationship between screen time and academic performance, although one may deduce that if mental health is affected by too much screen time in this population it stands to reason that so too will academic performance be affected.

Evaluation and Comparison of the Studies

The studies reviewed above examine the relationship between screen time and academic performance of children aged ten to fifteen. The study by Radesky et al. (2014) found that children with poor self-regulation at 9 months were more likely to consume media at age 2, suggesting that screen time might negatively impact a child’s ability to self-regulate emotions. The study by Kostyrka-Allchorne et al. (2017) found that the relationship between television viewing and children's development is complex and likely depends on individual characteristics, family and social context, as well as the features of the television content and type of exposure. While watching high-quality educational content during preschool years improves basic academic skills and predicts positive academic performance, television viewing in infancy is disruptive to play and associated with inattentive/hyperactive behaviors, lower executive functions, and language delay, at least in the short-term. The study by Li et al. (2020) found that mobile phone addiction negatively impacts sleep quality, which is partly mediated by rumination, and that mindfulness plays a protective role. The study by Brown & Bobkowski (2011) reviews research on the use and effects of older and newer media on adolescents' health and well-being. It suggests that screen time needs to be regulated as it does impact children and their ability to focus, grow, and develop themselves on a number of fronts, including the academic front. The study by Aguilar et al. (2015) found that screen time negatively impacts the relationship between physical fitness and academic attainment. Finally, the study by Faught et al. (2017) found that meeting lifestyle behavior recommendations, including screen time, is associated with meeting academic expectations for different subjects.

In terms of methodology, Radesky et al. (2014), Kostyrka-Allchorne et al. (2017), Li et al. (2020), and Aguilar et al. (2015) used quantitative methods, while Brown & Bobkowski (2011) used a literature review. Radesky et al. (2014), Aguilar et al. (2015), and Faught et al. (2017) used data from large samples, while Kostyrka-Allchorne et al. (2017) reviewed 76 studies.

Overall, the studies provide various insights into how screen time affects academic performance, with some suggesting negative effects, such as disruptions to self-regulation, sleep quality, and physical fitness, while others suggest that the relationship is complex and depends on various factors, such as the type and quality of content and individual characteristics. However, all studies suggest that screen time should be regulated to maximize the beneficial effect of healthy habits on academic attainment.

Discussion of Findings

All of the studies discussed examine the impact of screen time on various aspects of children's development or behavior, including academic performance, but they differ in terms of the population studied and the specific aspects of academic performance examined.

The study by Radesky et al. (2014) examines the association between media exposure and self-regulation problems in children aged 2, using data from a large longitudinal study. While the study does not directly examine academic performance, it suggests that screen time may negatively impact a child's ability to regulate their emotions and behavior, which could have implications for academic success. The study by Kostyrka-Allchorne et al. (2017), on the other hand, is a systematic review of literature on the association between television viewing and children's executive function, academic performance, attention, language, and play. The review considers a wide range of studies, but does not focus specifically on a particular population or age range. The study finds that the relationship between screen time and academic performance is complex and depends on a range of individual and contextual factors, but suggests that high-quality educational content during preschool years can improve academic skills.

The study by Li et al. (2020) examines the relationship between mobile phone addiction and sleep quality in Chinese adolescents and does not focus specifically on academic performance. It suggests that rumination partially mediates the relationship between mobile phone addiction and poor sleep quality and that mindfulness may be a protective factor. But the study by Brown & Bobkowski (2011) is a review of research on the use and effects of older and newer media on adolescents' health and well-being. The review considers a range of studies on different populations and age ranges, but does not focus specifically on academic performance. The study suggests that screen time can impact children's ability to focus and develop themselves in a number of areas, including academics.