Sharp Force Trauma Macroscopic Evidence

Sharp Force Trauma Macroscopic Evidence on Bone Morphology

Reviewing the literature is of utmost importance. Without a comprehensive review of literature on the subject, readers of a study are left with a lack of understanding or with a misconception that the results of the study or the subject being studied exists in a kind of bubble and has no relevance to other areas of study that are along the same basic issues. In order to encompass the entire issue, some of the areas that surround forensics and pathology must also be addressed before bone morphology is specifically discussed.

This is done to give an overview of the issue and to show the different ways that are used in order to ensure that crimes are solved and understandings are made regarding testing procedures and concerns. Because of this, forensic entomology, DNA sampling, and fossil evidence will all be addressed before bone morphology is discussed.

Forensic entomology is a relatively new area of study when it comes to murder, but it can tell a great deal that is very helpful with homicide investigations and other areas of law and medicine. It is for this reason that the interest in forensic entomology has continued to grow, and the field appears to fascinate many people. This is especially true when they begin to realize how much insects can tell humans.

For the purposes of this paper, the field of forensic entomology will be discussed only as it deals with homicide and what the insects on a corpse can tell medical examiners and law enforcement about time and place of death. The dipteran life cycle will also be discussed as it plays an important role in many of these kinds of investigations and is quite often used by forensic entomologists that are seeking answers.

Many laypeople became interested in forensic entomology through movies such as "The Silence of the Lambs," because forensic entomologists figured somewhat prominently in the movie. These forensic entomologists are now considered "cool" by many people who find the field gruesome and fascinating at the same time. This somewhat morbid fascination with death and what can be learned from a corpse has propelled forensic entomology, if not into the spotlight, than at least out on the edge of the stage. Forensic entomology may or may not be "cool," but it is a serious science and has much to tell individuals that are studying a corpse to determine when that person died and where. If foul play is thought to be involved, when the victim died and where can be pieces of evidence that would be considered very crucial in bringing the murderer to justice.

The most popular insect utilized to determine the time of death is the blowfly (Benecke, Barksdale, Sundermeier, Reibe, & Ratcliffe, 2000). It is important not only because it colonizes every corpse that it finds, but also because it has a very set pattern about when it appears and what type of larval stages it goes through, including how long it takes for the eggs to hatch based on temperature (Benecke, Barksdale, Sundermeier, Reibe, & Ratcliffe, 2000). Issues such as whether eggs were laid by more than one group of blowflies can also be determined based on larval stages found on the corpse and whether the temperature of the body and surrounding area was hot or cold (Benecke, Barksdale, Sundermeier, Reibe, & Ratcliffe, 2000).

The blowfly, of course, is not the only insect that is considered when looking at insects to help determine the time of death, although it is the most common and usually the earliest insect on the scene. Other insects that can be found on or around a corpse include beetles, as there are many different varieties (Lord, 2004). These usually appear when the corpse has 'dried out' to some degree, and they continue the process that the flies have started (Lord, 2004). Butterflies and other insects also sometimes land on or around corpses, but they are generally not of forensic value, and it is the flies and the beetles that hold significance for any serious homicide investigation where forensic entomology is involved.

Also important to the insect colonization of the corpse is what type of weather existed between the time of the victim's death and the time that the body was found (Benecke, Barksdale, Sundermeier, Reibe, & Ratcliffe, 2000). Weather that was rainy, foggy, or otherwise damp can cause more activity from the insects that like shade and cooler weather, while some insects prefer sunny, dry weather and will be most active when this kind of weather is taking place (Benecke, Barksdale, Sundermeier, Reibe, & Ratcliffe, 2000). The weather may not seem very significant to many who come upon a dead body, but the role that the weather, and therefore the insects, play in determining the time of death can be very significant (Benecke, Barksdale, Sundermeier, Reibe, & Ratcliffe, 2000).

The subject has become so popular that various museums are creating exhibits that deal with the issue. One of these, the Science Museum of Minnesota, had a 2003 exhibit that dealt with forensic entomology, including fake corpses in various states of decay, many insects, information about forensic entomologists and what they do, and some hands-on studies that people could use to try to piece together clues and determine the 'time of death' based on information provided by the insects found (Harlow, 2003). The exhibit was designed by a forensic entomologist, M. Lee Goff, who was, at that time, one of only nine individuals in the world to be certified as a forensic entomologist (Harlow, 2003).

It does not appear to be work that many want to do, and most people do not even know about it (Sachs, 1998). If there were more knowledge, however, it appears likely that more crimes would be solved based on the evidence collected from insects. Naturally, there is no guarantee that this would happen, because much of what these individuals do will still not hold up well in court. However, there are more and more cases that are using some of this type of evidence to help convict murderers, and it is predicted by some that this trend will continue until forensic entomology is as well-recognized within the legal system and the courtroom as other tests used today.

DNA testing and other methods that are currently used and accepted to find the murder in many cases were not always accepted by the courts, or by others in law enforcement. It took a long time for these tests to be studied thoroughly enough to prove that they were reliable and valid. Once this was done, there was far less concern about these tests not being valid or convicting someone that was innocent. In fact, DNA testing has led to the release of several individuals who claimed that they were innocent - and they were. The evidence proved that they did not commit the crime, and although they cannot get back the amount of time that they lost, they are free men today.

One of the main ways that forensic entomology works to prove the time of death is through the dipteran cycle. This is the cycle that the diptera, or blowfly, goes through from the egg to the adult (Sachs, 1998). When a blowfly arrives it will lay eggs, and these will hatch. The larvae of the blowfly will then use the corpse for food, and they secrete a chemical that breaks down the body so that it can be consumed more easily (Sachs, 1998). The larvae go through three distinct stages where they grow larger and enough of their characteristics change that the three stages can be identified by those that study them, making identification much easier (Sachs, 1998).

These things happen in very predictable time periods, and because of this it helps to show when an individual died. If there was foul play involved in the death of the individual, establishing the time of death can help to show where that person might have been at that time, when they were last seen living, and who might have been in their company around the time of their death. From this, suspects can often be found and this can help law enforcement to catch a killer.

Unfortunately for the future of this science, it meets with a lot of objections in the courtroom, even though it has so far been shown to be very reliable (Sachs, 1998). Something as simple as the fact that the temperature readings for the day were taken 20 miles from where the body was found can have a bearing on the case (Sachs, 1998). The lawyers of defendants have argued that, just because it reached a certain temperature in one town, that does not mean that it reached that temperature in another town miles up the road (Sachs, 1998). Since temperature plays a large role in how fast the body is found by insects, how fast the eggs are lain and hatched, and how fast the larvae grow up to become adults, the temperature around a body can be vital to a case regarding homicide.

If the temperature is taken miles away, or if the insect that was found and studied was not exactly the same as one that had been studied before, only similar perhaps, the defense attorney will also often argue that the entomologist's testimony is only guesswork, and therefore that it is not valid and should not be admitted as evidence (Sachs, 1998). Judges have taken different approaches about whether to allow this kind of evidence, but the trend appears to be toward allowing the prosecution to admit this kind of evidence, which indicates that forensic entomology in general is becoming more accepted by law enforcement and by the court system across the country.

The way that forensic entomology is becoming worthwhile in the court system is a trial by fire, but many entomologists say that they welcome this because they know that this ensures that, when their evidence is finally accepted as being just as valid as DNA and other testing, it will truly be because it has been tested thoroughly and found to be valid (Sachs, 1998). These forensic entomologists also realize that their data will be valid and valued if, and only if, the insects that they find are seen to be valued by the courts (Sachs, 1998). One of the problems that they run into, however, is what to do about corpses that are found in closed-in places. This is problematic because flies and other insects cannot find these bodies as easily, and sometimes not at all (Sachs, 1998).

Because of this, the time of death as established by blowfly larvae can be difficult to determine, and therefore it will not hold up in court to the extent that it would have otherwise. When this occurs, forensic entomologists try to look at how long it would have been before the insects would have been able to detect the body and make their way to it, and they add that time frame onto the time frame that they can find from the insect activity that they discover on the body itself (Sachs, 1998).

When they do this, however, they open themselves up for all kinds of legal challenges because they are, in effect, guessing. They really do not know for sure what the time of death was, and therefore they have trouble convincing the court that they are certain about when the person died. Without this certainty, it is obviously much more difficult to make a case.

Regardless of the concerns that some have about this it appears to be relatively clear that the field of forensic entomology will continue to expand and that more people will begin to see the benefits that it can have when it comes to homicide investigations and placing the time of death of a victim. Since movies such as "The Silence of the Lambs," the field has seen more interest and this looks as though it will continue. Not everyone embraces this particular field of study, but many seem to think that it has merit. In 1998, there was only one person in the world who was a full-time certified forensic entomologist (Sachs, 1998). By the year 2003, there were nine people throughout the world who were certified and performing that duty full-time (Harlow, 2003).

The movement from one person to nine people in six years is not a large jump, but it does indicate that there is interest in the field. When this field becomes more accepted within law enforcement and within the courts, it appears likely that even more people will choose this particular career path and when they do the field will begin to grow much more quickly, creating a rise in the ability to solve homicide cases that are still going unsolved by law enforcement at this point in time.

Although some see this field as being rather gruesome, it is also very fascinating and can be extremely helpful in bringing murderers to justice, which indicates that it has a lot of value for those in law enforcement and the court system. Whether this value is easily recognized remains to be seen, as the field of forensic entomology still faces some challenges before the courts will accept it on a large scale. It has been shown, however, to be more accurate than an estimation judging off of blood pooling, rigor mortis, and other factors that are commonly used to determine the time of death. If this particular trend continues, it is only a matter of time before the field of forensic entomology begins to grow rapidly and many more cases are solved using the insects that were previously seen to be just a nuisance to investigators.

DNA, short for deoxyribonucleic acid, is often called the "blueprint of life." That's because almost every living organism on this planet, whether bacterium, plant, fungus or animal, contains some form of the molecule (Epplen & Lubjuhn, 1999). The code contained within the DNA determines whether the organism turns out to be a fish or a dandelion, a person or a chimp; it also creates the characteristics that make one individual similar to, but still different from, another.

DNA is an extremely stable molecule, which means the information it contains can last long after the organism itself has died. In fact, it's so stable that scientists recently extracted DNA samples from insects trapped and preserved in amber droplets millions of years ago, obtaining information about how life functioned long before humans evolved.

DNA, though, is just a blueprint; by itself it does not create or maintain an organism. Rather, through a complex series of events it is "translated" into amino acids and then into proteins that the body's cells can use to obtain and store energy, transport materials, communicate and reproduce, among other things (Epplen & Lubjuhn, 1999).

Wrongful convictions are not often talked about in the news, but they are occasionally mentioned when they are incredibly significant, such as a man who was wrongfully convicted 20 years ago and then was freed based on DNA evidence or some other new way of determining whether the person was actually guilty (the DNA, 2007).

These are the exceptions rather than the rules, but these do happen, and they can significantly affect the lives of many people. Not only is the life of the wrongly accused changed forever, but his or her family and friends are all affected as well. This is a very serious concern, and naturally the criminal justice system tries to avoid wrongful convictions as much as they can. It is not always possible, however, to avoid wrongfully convicting someone if there is a great deal of circumstantial evidence or if there are witnesses who claim the person is guilty of a particular crime (Coleman & Swenson, 1994).

Now that there are more reliable procedures, such as DNA testing, there are fewer people who are wrongfully convicted. Before this kind of testing was available, wrongful conviction was much more severe, and it was relatively common for people to be wrongfully convicted of crimes, because they lacked the sophisticated ways to prove their innocence that are available now. Appeals were not as popular and the amount of court cases to rely on were also more limited, which gave these people less to work with where precedent was concerned (Coleman & Swenson, 1994). Lawyers were not as skilled as they are today, and there was less they could do to defend their clients from wrongful accusations.

However, today was brought a new age of criminology, and many of the people who were previously convicted of crimes are being found innocent and released based on new evidence. Still, though, there are those that maintain their innocence and have no way to prove it. They may also be wrongly convicted, but if their crimes were not ones that produced DNA evidence there is often little that they can do to show that they were not guilty. This has much to do with the idea that how many people are wrongfully convicted in this country cannot accurately be determined (Sheindlin, 1996). Opinions and some educated guesswork are all that is available to those that want answers to this question.

There are protections in place to avoid wrongful convictions, but they do not always do their job. One of the main protections is all of the new ways that are used to determine whether someone is guilty, such as the aforementioned DNA testing. This and other new scientific breakthroughs provide good protection because they are very exacting and leave virtually no room for error. Another protection is having a jury. This means that others must hear the case and say what they think is right, instead of leaving it up to the judge.

This gives more of a chance for others to listen to all of the evidence and agree as to whether someone has committed a crime. It is more thorough than allowing only a judge to make that determination, since the jury is usually six or twelve people, instead of just the judge. The fact that all people, regardless of their crime or anything else, have the right to an attorney and will have one appointed if they cannot afford one is another important protection for those that are accused. This ensures that all people are defended properly and that trials are as fair as they possible can be.

There is, however, always some chance for error, even when DNA testing is used. Even though there are many protections, it seems that more are needed. No one should be wrongfully accused and have to suffer through the pain of being imprisoned if they have done nothing wrong. Juries are important, and they should be continued. Better pay for court-appointed lawyers would be one way to help protect their clients. Most of these lawyers get paid considerably less than other lawyers that work for big firms, and because of this they do not have access to some of the tools that others do. This can hurt their clients' chances of being freed, even if those clients are innocent (Sheindlin, 1996).

While genes make up a certain percentage of a person's DNA, they do not account for all the base pairs; in fact, perhaps as much as 90% of the DNA is non-coding - what is sometimes called "junk DNA." The key to the fingerprinting process lies within these non-coding regions, many of which contain stretches of short, identically repeated sequences of nucleotides known as variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs). The number of VNTRs at specific places (called loci) on each chromosome varies from person to person and can be used to pinpoint a sample's source (Coleman & Swenson, 1994).

To isolate these differences, scientists use the following approach:

Obtain a DNA Sample

Since all the cells in the body contain the same DNA sequences, the specimens can come from blood, saliva, semen, tissue, hair, fingernails or any other body part. In the case of paternity or parentage testing, the specimen is usually a hair sample or a buccal swab (a Q-tip rubbed against the inside of the cheek - see Parentage Testing below), since these are relatively non-invasive. In a criminal case, investigators must use whatever samples are available at the scene (Sheindlin, 1996).

Cut the DNA

DNA strand can run into the millions of bases. This is far too unwieldy to work with; therefore, scientists use one of two procedures:

1. They cut a long strand of DNA into fragments with restriction enzymes to produce manageable segments of known length. Enzymes are proteins that help speed up a reaction, and these enzymes cut the DNA at very specific, and well-known, places. For example, a bacterial enzyme called EcoR1 cuts the DNA only when the sequence GAATTC occurs. Small fragments can be easily identified and then pieced back together into their original order.

2. They use the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique to amplify small amounts of DNA. PCR requires much smaller samples than the restriction enzyme technique; it is therefore extremely useful in forensic applications when there is usually only a small amount of a sample present.

Sort the Fragments

Cutting the DNA is a good first step, but what you get is essentially a soup filled with millions of DNA pieces of all different lengths (and varying degrees of interest to researchers). In order to isolate the fragment(s) of interest, you have to sort them; this is done by a process called gel electrophoresis. The "soup" is placed into a gel medium (usually agarose, a jellied substance purified from seaweed), and an electric current is applied. Since DNA is a charged molecule, it will migrate in the gel. In addition, the gel contains pores; smaller fragments will move more easily and more quickly through the pores, while larger fragments will remain near the top of the gel.

Transfer the DNA

Since DNA disintegrates quickly in the gel medium, it needs to be transferred to a support system such as a nylon membrane. The most common procedure is known as the Southern blot.

Label the DNA

Once the DNA is fixed on the membrane, the DNA is incubated with a radioactively-labeled probe (a small DNA fragment complementary to the VNTR sequence of interest - remember, if you know the sequence on one strand you know it on the other), and then placed next to a photographic film. Only sections bound to the labeled probe will develop the film, and the pattern of DNA fragments shows up as a series of bands whose positions are always the same for the same DNA sequence. These bands can be matched to a known sample of DNA or used to compare samples from different sources (as with parentage testing).

Do it Again single VNTR locus is not enough to identify a specific individual; for any given locus a DNA fragment with a particular number of sequence repeats will occur in a certain percentage of the population. The final profile therefore contains the results of four or five probes applied sequentially, each of which targets a different VNTR locus (Sheindlin, 1996). Using the principles of statistics and population genetics, the scientists can then make a probable match.

In "The fossil evidence for human evolution in Asia" Dennis Etler discusses his findings and the conclusions that he has reached based on the evidence presented in his article. In the last ten years, the record of human fossils in China has grown rapidly. Even in light of this evidence, there are still two debates going on currently about how human beings evolved worldwide. The first debate is regarding the evidence for humans in Eurasia. The second is about the origins of humans, and the concern over whether archaic hominids played a role in the creation of living people. The fossil record in China is very important, as it may help to resolve both issues (Etler 1996). The first Homo erectus fossil was found in 1893, and fossils have since been found in Africa and Asia (Human 2002).

In the 1970's, it was thought that humans arrived in Asia 1.8 to 1.9 million years ago. Because it was so difficult to find fossils dating to this time period, and because many people interpreted a fossil's age differently, this viewpoint was eventually abandoned. In the last decade, there has been a general consensus that Homo erectus entered Asia 1 million years ago. This set aside the previous opinions of where human fossils from China and Java came from. The fossils were restudied and found to be younger and within the variation expected in Homo erectus (Etler 1996).

Now that there have been more recent fossil discoveries, Homo erectus has come under suspicion. Even though Homo erectus fossils have been found, there have been other fossils found that are from other hominids. Since these remains do not fall into the normal parameters set for Homo erectus, it is believed that there may have been other hominids in Asia around the same time period, or possibly earlier. There is still no agreement about the age of all of the material, especially the material from Java (Etler 1996).

According to a study published in the journal Nature, remains found in Ethiopia and remains found in Asia are so similar that they must have come from the same species. Further information from the study indicates that although the remains are extremely similar, not everyone is willing to agree that they are the same species with some variant qualities (Mayell, 2002).

On the mainland of Eurasia there have been other fossils found that show the possibility that hominids were there 1.8-2.0 million years ago. Many findings from all over Eurasia have been dated all of the way back to the earliest Pleistocene, which was 1.6 million years ago (Etler, 1996).

Critics of the new information insist that it is no better than any information found previously and therefore there is no reason to reconsider what has been accepted for so long. Many people, however, are showing more willingness to accept most or all of the new information. Africanists are hoping that the new information will show a dispersal of early Homo erectus in Asia before Africa.

This will help add weight to their claim that the Asian Homo erectus was uninvolved in the African origins of human beings. Asianists are happy because they have long believed that Asia was very important in human evolution and that Homo erectus did perhaps come about in Asia and eventually spread to Africa to replace other early hominids. More material and more study is needed, however, to determine what all of the newfound remains really mean and how they relate to the worldwide emergence of the Homo genus (Etler 1996).

Many areas of China, including Wushan, Yuanmou, and Gongwangling, have been sights for fossils. A partial cranium found at Gongwangling is believed to be very much like other material that has been found to belong to Homo erectus in east Africa (Etler 1996).

The range of Homo erectus in China spans some 700,000 years, and is widely distributed all over the provinces. There are some variations, but all the fossil findings go a long way toward creating a pattern that researchers and other interested parties can follow. The pattern also helps to show the evolutionary transformation the hominid went through during its long east Asian history. The status of Homo erectus in other parts of the world can be evaluated by this more complete record of the fossils found in China (Etler 1996).

One of the main sites in China is in Zhoukoudian in Beijing. Great advances have been made at this site since 1949, and these culminated in the 1970's and 1980's with very extensive work by various institutes. There were indications that the site was permanently inhabited as late as 240 thousand years ago (Etler 1996).

Many things were found at this site including 6 skull-caps, 12 fragments from craniums, 15 mandible pieces and 157 teeth. In addition to these finds, there were also other bone fragments such as pieces of tibia and clavicles. During WWII nearly all of these fossils were lost, but there was a set of casts made that still survive today. Only a few teeth, a fragment of a limb bone, a lower jaw and a frontal and occipital remain (Etler 1996).

Detailed literature has been written on these finds, most notably by Davidson Black and Franz Weidenreich. Some of the more important information from these finds include the facts that the craniums found were approximately 2/3 the size of a human being. The craniums had a sloping forehead and a broad base. The most distinctive dental trait is the 'shoveling' of the upper incisors, which is a benchmark for defining Homo erectus (Etler 1996).

Most of the specimens found at Zhoukoudian are basically the same, and these specimens differ from more recently discovered hominid finds in China. Only the Homo erectus specimens found in Yiyuan show great similarities to the specimens from Zhoukoudian. All of the main features of Homo erectus are present to some extent in many of the other Chinese fossils. Some of these fossils predate the Zhoukoudian site, and some are later arrivals (Etler 1996).

The most complete specimens of Homo erectus ever found on mainland China are from Yunxian. They preserve some of the features of Homo erectus while having other features that are more associated with Western finds. Western fossils were later elaborated on by the neandertals, and had a much different structure than the patterns seen in Asia (Etler 1996).

Although it has often been assumed that the cranial features found in central China as well as Hexian were progressive, it is also possible that they were part of a specific variation. While the Hexian skull-cap was assumed to be an advanced form of Homo erectus, it is speculated that Homo erectus may have overlapped premodern Homo sapiens to some extent. It is impossible to tell whether the two overlapped (Etler 1996).

Some studies suggest that Homo sapiens appeared 120 thousand years ago as a new species, and began most likely in east Africa. They spread to Asia later on (Handprint 2002).

The most current discovery was in 1993 in Huludong. It is quite similar to the other specimens found at Zhoukoudian. The large amount of fossils found over the last 20 years seems to indicate a greater variation than was initially suspected. Further study will be required to determine whether there are local variations in east Asia and how this ties in to the course of human evolution (Etler 1996).

Premodern Homo sapiens have also been found in China, with the first discovery in 1953. Through finding these remains and comparing them with Homo erectus as well as modern Homo sapiens, a more complete evolutionary picture can be found (Etler 1996).

Many fossils have been found in several provinces of China indicating that premodern Homo sapiens were there. They may have even overlapped with the Homo erectus. Premodern Homo sapiens date back to around 300 thousand years ago, which is earlier than they were found in Europe, and later than they were found in Africa (Etler 1996). More research is needed, but there is a strong trend showing that human beings have their roots in Africa and Asia. More studies on this matter are likely to be conducted soon, as there has been an abundance of fossils found in China (Etler 1996).

These fossils also tie into the area of bone morphology and forensic osteology. These are areas of study that have not been that widely discussed and are often not well understood by others. However, effort will be made here to more clearly explain what these areas are and how important they are in crime scene investigations. Any kind of knife and/or saw marks that are made in bone give a lot of information about what happened to the person, and this can also show an investigator whether the marks were made before or after death and by what type of instrument. Some illustration here will be more helpful.

The following table shows the characteristics that are seen in bone cut-marks. This is important because these cut marks vary greatly based on what type of weapon or instrument was used to make them and an investigator can easily determine what basic kind of instrument was used on the victim, which can provide valuable information to law enforcement and others that might be looking for a suspect. Knowing what type of instrument was used in the commission of a crime gives many important ideas and clues to society.

Table 1: Gross Characteristics of Cut Marks in Bone

Source: Forensic Osteology, 2nd ed. (1998). Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Ltd.

While the characteristics are very important, there are other issues that also must be addressed. One of these issues is what type of saw is used. While the difference between a knife, a saw, and an axe are very large, some of the differences between types of saws are not as easy to locate. However, the trained investigator will be able to see that there is a difference based on the type of blade that the saw has.

Because of this, not only the fact that a saw was used can be noted, but also what type of saw was used. This can be very valuable when it comes to looking at suspects, items that have been located, and other clues that have come to light. The figure on the following page shows two different types of saws that may be used and that have specific different types of cut marks when they are used on bone.

These saws are both carpenter saws and they are also common. They can be purchased in hardware stores, home centers, and other places and therefore they make easily-attainable weapons for individuals that are looking to commit crimes against other people.

Figure 1: Two Common Types of Carpenter Saws

Source: Forensic Osteology, 2nd ed. (1998). Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Ltd.

As can be seen by the above figure, the angle of the teeth greatly affect how the marks will look on the bone. This is one of the ways that investigators help to determine how to proceed with an investigation, where to look for clues, and what to do next. Another way they do this is by looking at the way that the strokes were made against the bone. The following figure illustrates that issue.

Figure 2: Saw Cut and Bone Cross-Section

Source: Forensic Osteology, 2nd ed. (1998). Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Ltd.

Another concern that is highly important is when the injury occurred. Whether the saw or other bladed weapon was used before death or after it can also yield many clues for investigators, but the determination of when this took place is not always easy. To the trained eye, however, there are specific things that can be looked for when it comes to whether the bone injury was antemortem or postmortem. The following table (Table 2) shows the six steps that occur after a bone has been damaged as it begins to repair itself.

By knowing what stage of repair the bone is in and approximately how long it takes for the bone to reach that stage, a determination of how long a victim has been deceased can be established. Of course, everyone is different and the healing time for one individual may not be the same as for another individual. However, the healing times are all similar and within specific time frames, which is what the table on the stages of bone reformation looks at.

This table has been taken from the Second Edition of the Forensic Anthropology Training Manual and is reproduced verbatim here because the information in it is so valuable. To re-word it would be to lose much of the information and the importance of it.

Table 2: Stages of Bone Reformation

Source: Forensic Anthropology Training Manual, 2nd ed. (2007). Prentice-Hall.

One of the most difficult issues to comprehend and understand when it comes to forensics, however, is the idea that there are no published standards for saw marks and knife marks, and there are very, very few methodologies that are involved with analysis of these things. Because of this, not only is it difficult to write about but it also puts investigators at a disadvantage and causes many cases to take longer than necessary to be solved. There are experts on cut marks when it comes to bone, but there are not many of them and it is not always easy to get them on a particular case, especially in smaller or more rural areas.

In the next chapter, the methodology will be addressed. From that, it will be seen just how little can really be addressed and discovered when it comes to this issue, and how much more study of it is needed.

Chapter III: Methodology

Research Design and Approach

The methodology of any study is particularly important. Without a clear understanding of how the study was conducted and what was dealt with in it, it becomes very difficult to analyze data in a way that makes any kind of sense later on. Because of this, the methodology that is carried out must be explained clearly and precisely, so that there is no confusion about what was done, and what was discovered. The methodology for this particular study will be discussed in this chapter, and the results of the study will be detailed and analyzed in the following chapter.

This section of the methodology deals specifically with how the research was designed and what approach was utilized. The approach to this particular study is considered to be really a relatively simple one, but it is also a very important one, and it makes the most sense for the information that is available and the answers that the researcher seeks to find in this particular study. The collected data of others will be utilized in order to determine what kind of information has been seen in the past and whether the current study indicates the same types of concerns. This type of analysis can allow for better understanding of what has gone on in the past, what the current study shows, and where future trends are heading when it comes to this issue.

While many studies interview subjects or conduct surveys, analyzing and reviewing the work of others is still quite a common method for many researchers to use when conducting a study of this nature, which is why it will be done for help in understanding what has gone before in this issue.

An approach such as this one showcases the information that was collected by others in the literature review and also allows the researcher's examination of the information to be examined and studied in a way that might be different from the ways that other researchers would utilize it or from the ways that similar information has been presented in articles and studies, thus broadening the issue and the understanding of the information provided.

Not all approaches work well for all studies, and care must be taken to ensure that the proper approach is utilized so that the study will be the best that it can be and make the most sense for all involved who read it. It is also important that the study impart the information that it is designed for, so that it will answer the question that was really asked. While there is no reason to assume that this is the only approach that will work, it is reasonable to assume that it is one of few approaches that will work, and that trying to utilize too many approaches or working with one that would be unfamiliar to the researcher would be difficult and would result in problems with the rest of the study.

As to the validity of the data, it would appear that information contained in books and articles that were written specifically about this subject would be considered to be valid. It would not be possible, however, for this researcher to verify everything that is read in these studies to ensure that it was accurate. Due to this, the assumption must be made that the authors of these studies wrote what was genuine and accurate, and that they did not cut corners or create something that they knew was not actually as truthful as it could have been. There is always the possibility that honest mistakes were innocently made, and these cannot be helped.

Data Analysis Procedure

The data analysis will use information that has already been collected by others that have written books and articles about the subject at hand, or about parts of the subject that work to make up the whole of it. The information from the literature will generally consist of a great deal of information from articles, but information from other sources will also be used to provide some of the data that is important to the study. This is done for several reasons, but the two most significant ones are time and cost. Attempting to collect new data about the issue would be costly, and it would also take up a great deal of time that could be better spent.

Another reason for the use of previously collected material for this issue is that it is often very difficult to get individuals that have knowledge to find time to talk about the issue. With this in mind, just collecting the data could prove very difficult and delay the study for quite some time. In an effort to avoid this problem, the researcher has chosen to utilize the material of others that have already been published, giving credit where it is due, and use that information in a way that is unique to the study based on qualitative analysis.

Limitations of the Study

As with any study, this one has some limitations that must be dealt with. All studies have their problems and limitations that surface, and tackling them and discussing them do not indicate weakness, but rather they show the strength of understanding possessed by the researcher when looking at the chosen field for the study. It is with this in mind that the limitations of the study will be discussed here, so that it can be shown that the researcher had a full and complete understanding of the problems inherent in doing a study such as this with the limited resources that are available. Any biases that the researcher might have can also be considered a limitation.

Limitations to a study are often overlooked by the researcher, but this can pose problems for others that wish to use the research at a later date. Unfortunately, this happens quite often, and it makes research suspect when there are no limitations discussed. In an effort to avoid this, all limitations of this study that are recognized by the researcher will be clearly spelled out and discussed so that there is no concern in the future about whether the researcher knew what kinds of problems might arise or what should be done about them if they did. In this way, any issues that could come up and be problematic will be avoided and the information contained in the study can be accepted as being reliable, valid, and unique. The issues of validity and reliability will be discussed in another section.

The first limitation that is important to note is that there is so little information about the case study subject in question - cut marks and bone morphology. While there is indeed some information, much of it comes from studies that deal only with forensics in general and is not specific enough. Therefore it is not as thorough as it could be if it came from sources that dealt with the bone morphology and cut marks only. It is necessary to discuss this somewhat to show exactly where the problem lies. If there were journal articles and other research written about this issue much of it would be objective, with some subjectivity on the part of the researcher undoubtedly thrown in. Without this, however, the only information that can be located in general is information that deals only with forensics in general and therefore does not give the strong bone and osteology component to the research that this particular study needs.

It is disturbing that there is such a small amount of information that is available on the issue at hand, specifically when it comes to cut marks and. There is information out there, but finding good quality, legitimate information from a proper source is somewhat difficult. With this is mind, it is troubling that there is so little information presented on this particular issue and its significance.