Sketches of Jewish Social Life,

Sketches of Jewish Social Life, Alfred Edersheim attempts to transport the reader into the land of Palestine during the time of Jesus and his apostles. He does so in an effort to give readers a sense of the historical events and day-to-day life that occurred contemporaneously with the life of Christ. Furthermore, Edersheim believes that his description of Palestine during this time period illuminates the truth of the statements in the New Testament. Furthermore, Edersheim uses historical events to show that Jesus differed from others of his time period, and was a unique individual. Edersheim builds upon that to demonstrate several different points: first, that Jesus was the Son of God; second, that Jesus was Jewish; and third, that Jesus signaled a departure from traditional Judaism.

In the first chapter, Edersheim begins by describing Palestine during the time of Jesus. He explains that ancient Palestine did not resemble modern Palestine. Ancient Palestine had a different physical appearance, geographical makeup, and social and religious makeup than modern Palestine. In contrast to the arid desert that is modern Palestine, ancient Palestine was a beautiful and prosperous place. In fact, one scholar of the time period believed that Palestine of that time fulfilled God's promise of a land of milk and honey. Palestine had abundant sources of fruit trees, grain, produce, fish, animals, and birds. Furthermore, Palestine was a Holy Land. Its capital was Jerusalem and it was the worldly embodiment of Israel and the center of Judaism. Furthermore, Palestine was the center of Jewish traditional law and Jewish learning. In fact, the land itself gave Jews a connection to God, because those buried in Palestine where to be the first to enjoy everlasting life. Therefore, the modern state of Israel, which is thought to fulfill God's promise to the Jews, might be the closest political and physical approximation to the ancient state of Palestine.

In the first chapter, Edersheim also discusses the difficulties scholars have in reconstructing ancient Palestine. The complete desolation of the country has made it almost impossible to determine where specific events occurred. In fact, the desolation is so complete that modern scholars cannot even determine the locations of ancient buildings. Furthermore, the physical details of the land such as the terrain and the soil have changed over time. Therefore, Palestine's gift has been spiritual realities, not physical locations. In addition, the boundaries of Palestine have been constricted over time and have never reached the extent of God's promise to Israel. Although he does not go into tremendous detail about how political changes have impacted the face of ancient Palestine, Edersheim does indicate that centuries of warfare in the land have helped destroy some of the physical evidence that may once have existed to support the stories detailed in the Bible.

Edersheim goes on to discuss the political and religious makeup of ancient Palestine. First, he describes that the dispersed tribes had returned to Palestine, and that the controversy about the ten tribes raged even in ancient Palestine. At the time of Christ's birth, Palestine was under the suzerainty of Rome and was governed by Herod the Great. After Herod's death, Palestine was divided into various dominions. Furthermore, Jews petitioned Rome, asking that Herodians not be appointed King. Rome refused the request and Archelaus, Herod's appointed successor, took vengeance on the Jews. Archelaus was deposed and Judea joined Syria. Palestine's political boundaries had it arranged into four territories: Galilee, Samaria, Judaea, and Peraea. Although Judaea was the most prominently Jewish area, Galilee had the most material wealth and also had a large Jewish population.

In chapter two, Edersheim discusses Jews and Gentiles in the Holy Land. First, he states that the boundary lines were not clearly demarcated. However, the boundaries were important because they affected religious obligations or privileges of a district. There were ten degrees of holiness in Palestine, and everything outside of Palestine was considered unholy. In fact, Jews were to avoid contact with those things outside of Israel. However, those lands conquered by King David, and referred to as Syria or Soria were considered as holy as Palestine. However, there were differences in the lands. For example, Galilee and Judaea each had their own legal customs and rights. The distinctions between the various areas are important to Christians because the first Gentile church was established just outside of Israel. Another point made by Edersheim is that even within the land, Hebrew was not used as the main language; instead, the people spoke Aramaean, which was heavily influenced by Greek and Latin. Edersheim goes on to explain little details of daily life, such as coins with heads on them, which demonstrated the foreign influence in Israel. It is important to understand that Israel experienced a tremendous foreign influence because, while Jews attempted to remain somewhat isolated from outside cultures, they were a conquered people and had to assimilate into larger society.

In chapter three, Edersheim goes on to discuss the land of Galilee during the time of the Lord. He makes it clear that Galilee was materially wealthy, while Judaea was considered spiritually wealthy. As a result, many Rabbinists from Judaea demonstrated contempt to those from Galilee. Compounding this problem was the fact that the Galilean highlands played host to a lot of outlaws. Galilee also contained the caravan road, which connected Damascus with Ptolemais. Therefore, Galilee played host to people from throughout the region. Nazareth was in Galilee, and it not only sat on the main road, but also played host to priests. Furthermore, the Galilean temperament seemed well-suited for receiving Christianity because they were considered warm-hearted, impulsive, conscientious, and earnest. Edersheim also indicates that it may have been significant that God chose a woman from Galilee, rather than from Judaea, to carry the Christ.

In chapter four, Edersheim goes on to discuss traveling in Palestine, during the period in question. Palestine contained several important roads. Five of the roads were Judaean and radiated to or from Jerusalem. The sixth road was not primarily Jewish, but instead connected Damascus with Rome and passed through Galilee. Palestine also contained a number of secondary roads. The roads were kept in good repair and many of them required tolls; clergy would have been exempt from paying those tolls. Israel was distinguished for its hospitality, and hospitality was considered a religious duty and obligation. In addition, Palestine had hostels and inns, for the housing of strangers and for public dining, drinking, and gaming. It was in these inns that Herod's spies were able to get the opinion of the people. It resulted in the people being under a form of martial law, with severe punishments for believed transgressions. Jews were responsible for paying various civil taxes, which became increasingly onerous under the Romans. This financial devastation helped contribute to the fact that Christ's disciples were chosen from among the lowest of the people. This choice differed from some aspects of traditional Judaism, which helped limit Jewish leadership to those in the middle and upper classes.

In chapter five, Edersheim talks about life in Judaea. At that time, Judaea was the inner sanctuary of Judaism. Jews awaited the Messiah and the restoration of the Kingdom of Israel, which lent an air of expectation to the region. However, they expected the Messiah to wreak vengeance, rather than come with his message of love. The Rabbis did not share the Messianic expectations, and resisted, not only the new Church, but any similar movements. There was a fear of Rome, which led to some unique relationships between Rabbis and the Roman oppressors. Furthermore, the question of what cities were Jewish was important for the sake of rituals. However, these boundaries were difficult to fix and were subject to change because Israel was under foreign influence. Furthermore, Edersheim points out that when Jews sought to assert their independence, the occupiers would strike back with violence, which often resulted in a redistribution of Jews in the area.

Edersheim discusses Jewish homes in chapter six. He makes the point that the distinction between Jews and Gentiles was not merely a religious distinction, but was also a social distinction. The actual construction of streets, the arrangement of homes and other buildings, and the habits of the people set them apart from other people. First, a quorum of ten men was required for worship. Men could not compel their wives to move from a town to a township, or vice-versa. Edersheim goes on to give a snapshot of life in both townships and towns. The townships had strict political, police, and sanitary rules and regulations. One unique aspect was that people gathered on rooftops. In fact, rooftops were gathering places, guest rooms, and provided venues for travel. Jewish home life was also about obligations. For example, parents and children had mutual duties to each other. According to Edersheim, one interesting aspect of those mutual duties was that a child's duty to a parent lasted longer and was more in-depth than a parent's duty to a child. This facet bears illumination because it differs from today's child-centered society, even if it does not reflect a difference between Christianity and Judaism but more a wide-ranging cultural change. However, Edersheim also points out that Jews were more child-centered than their contemporary cultures. One example of the Jewish reverence for children is that only Jews and one other culture had prohibitions against infanticide, while other cultures openly permitted the practice.

In chapter seven, Edersheim goes on to discuss the raising of Jewish children. Different ages of children had different roles and expectations. Children learned early on the protection of the Mesusah. In addition to formal instruction, children learned by observing their parents engage in rituals. The book of Proverbs is helpful to an understanding of how Jews were to raise their children. The most important part of the education of a Jewish child was religious education. Much of this instruction came as the result of children watching their parents, because Jews lived their religion as part of their daily lives. In addition to informal instruction, some children received formal instruction. While the degree of formal instruction was not dependent upon class, it was dependent upon gender; generally, only male children were entitled to extensive, formal religious instruction.

In chapter eight, Edersheim goes into greater depth regarding education. He starts out by saying that, under systems of heathenism, as civilization advances, morality declines. Instead, he posits that Bible-based societies are superior, especially in their treatment of the family. First, Jews were taught no knowledge outside of the laws of God. In fact, theology was the foundation of Jewish life. In fact, Jews were prohibited from learning heathen science or literature. The Jewish father was responsible for a child's elementary education, starting at about the age of three. Female children were not generally afforded the same educational opportunities as male children. At six, male children were sent to schools, at ten they studied the Mishnah, at fifteen the Talmud. However, Edersheim indicates that some females were given the opportunity to study religion like their male counterparts, even if these opportunities were generally discouraged by the Jewish population at large.

In chapter nine, Edersheim describes the various roles that women played in Israel. Women mingled freely in society and could achieve positions of importance and influence. Society was polygamous and it was relatively simple for people to obtain divorces. While other marriages occurred, love matches were the most encouraged, and people were discouraged from marrying for position or wealth. For Jewish males, marriage was viewed as a religious obligation, to be fulfilled by the age of 20. Women retained nominal ownership of their dowries. Brothers were required to support their sisters. Spouses had certain legal obligations towards one another. While men had more obligations, women's obligations were encompassed a larger area. For example, upon marriage, a woman's property became the property of her husband. However, Jews of both sexes were given relatively easy access to divorces, and a woman could divorce her husband if he chose to move their family from an urban to a rural setting or vice-versa. In fact, the ready access to divorce is one of the things that Edersheim mentions as one of the problems with Judaism that was causing God a significant amount of distress and prompted the creation of Jesus.

In chapter eight, Edersheim speaks about death and afterlife. First, he points out that Jews distinguished between bodily death and everlasting death. In addition, Jews believed that God was the one who determined whether someone would be permitted an afterlife. Jews also believed that children could be born sinful, because of the sins of the parents. Jews expected to live long lives and an early death could be punishment for sin. Jews had a religious responsibility to visit and tend to the ill and to show reverence for the dead. Jews were buried as soon after death as possible, had burial rights, and were buried outside the city. On the way to the cemetery there was a funeral oration. God only required mourning for the first day; any other mourning was prescribed by the elders. Deep mourning lasted for seven days, light mourning for 30 days, and mourners were to celebrate the anniversary of the death. Those things related to death could be done without prohibition on the Sabbath. Upon death, people had to account for their sins. Sin was believed to be determined by compliance with the laws. Furthermore, compliance with the laws was not based on whether or not a person observed the Ten Commandments, but on compliance with the myriad little laws regarding daily life that could be found in Leviticus.

In chapters 11 and 12, Edersheim discusses Jewish views on trade and commerce. Honest labor was to be rewarded, and was without shame. In fact, if one wanted to eat, he was to be prepared to work. This was in contrast to the sentiments expressed by the surrounding Greeks and Romans. People doing their best in honest trades were doing their part of God's work. Furthermore, many men were connected by work to the temple. It seems that Jewish laborers may have been involved in organizations that bore some similarity to modern-day trade unions. One of the reasons that labor became acceptable was that Jews were not in possession of their own land, which required them to engage in labor. Furthermore, Israel adopted business and commerce as a result of its downtrodden state. However, Mosaic law restricted a substantial amount of commerce between Jews and Gentiles. The acceptance of commerce marked a change from ancient Judaism, and reflected changes in the social and political climate of Israel and Palestine. In addition, as commerce became acceptable, a body of law developed governing commerce. These laws dictated the amounts to be sold, when weights were to be cleaned, what constituted a contract, and the remedies that could be pursued by buyers or sellers in the event of a bad bargain. Jewish law also contained certain restrictions on borrowing and lending, the most notable being a prohibition against usury that was so extreme that it oftentimes worked to penalize the lender.

In chapters 13 and 14, Edersheim discusses the Pharisees. First, he describes certain details of the life of a Pharisee. The first detail is that the Pharisees engaged in regular prayers at appointed times, and that those prayers took precedent over anything else. They were also required to pray when entering or leaving a village. According to Edersheim, the Pharisees appeared different from other men, whether because they looked self-satisfied or ostentatiously meek. There were different levels of Pharisees, and with each level, the zealous observance of Jewish laws increased. The Pharisees dressed differently from other Jews, and did not associate with those outside of their own particular rank and level. The combination of patriotism and religion made the Pharisees popular in Christ's time. In fact, they molded the face of Judaism, despite their relatively small numbers. The Pharisees were organized in a series of fraternities. While they claimed to have originated in the time of Ezra, the earliest mention of the term was in the time of the Maccabees. The four degrees were separated by their adherence to Levitical purity. The fraternity of the Pharisees was bound by two laws: the law of tithing and the law of purification. Originally, membership in one of the fraternities of the Pharisees was hereditary. However, Edersheim points out that the Pharisees found St. Paul's membership to be very problematic and changed their membership requirements in response to that problem.

In chapter 15, Edersheim describes the relation of the Pharisees to the Sadducees and Essenes, and to the Gospel of Christ. First, the Sadducees and the Pharisees were opposing factions. However, the Pharisees had attained such prominence that even the Sadducees followed regulations and rules established by the Pharisees. Unlike the Pharisees, the Sadducees believed that one was to follow the letter of the law, and not do more or less than required to do, and the sect developed as a reaction to the Pharisees. Furthermore, the Sadducees were primarily composed of members of the upper class, while the Pharisees included members of the lower class and women. In relation to the Gospel of Christ, the Sadducees did not deny the possibility of resurrection, but indicated that resurrection was not mentioned in the Torah. Both the Pharisees and the Sadducees attended the same temples as other Jews, and symbolized directions of religious thought, rather than the foundation of a new religion or sect. On the other hand, the Essenes did not mingle with society, practiced asceticism and self-denial, and did not marry. Edersheim concludes that none of the orders formed the foundation of the Christian church, because the early Christian church differed significantly from any of these smaller religious orders, even if they shared some common elements.

In chapters 16 and 17, Edersheim discusses synagogues. Presence at a synagogue was extremely important, and God was said to hear only those prayers offered in synagogues. Synagogues were located on the highest ground in a town. Internally, synagogues were simple rectangular or round buildings, with a single or double colonnade, with sacred symbols carved on external lintels. Even the ruins of synagogues were considered sacred. The sexes were separated in the synagogues. Special rituals, which had not been observed in the temples, became connected with synagogues. In fact, certain specific prayers became associated with the synagogues. One person was selected to lead sections of prayers, and the number of leaders depended on the day and time. Furthermore, Edersheim points out that the development of synagogues was a natural evolution from Jewish temple life, in large part because foreign occupation had resulted in the destruction of temple culture. Not only were temples physically destroyed, but worship in temples was sometimes seen as suspect, which led to worship in synagogues.

Edersheim concludes by briefly outlining ancient Jewish theological literature. While certain prayers were required on certain days, Jews were also allowed to select additional prayers, and they were selected by the rulers of the synagogue. The chassanim led the singing and devotions of the synagogue. The Gabaei Zedakah collected and distributed alms, and many believe that they are the model for the Diaconate in the early Church. The Targum represented a translation of Hebrew scripture into the vernacular, and each would carry the imprint of the translator. In fact, some Targumim revealed the theology of the time. However, no Targumim from the time of the Lord exists today. There is however, a work referred to as the "Book of Jubilees," which tells the views of the ancient Pharisees and details their Scriptural interpretations. There is also a body of theological writing dealing with unfulfilled prophecies. These different types of theological literature are important because they highlight the differences between the Gospel and Jewish religious thought at the time of the Lord. Furthermore, the different types of theological literature also help demonstrate that there were some major differences in thought among different groups of Jews. Finally, these different types of literature help highlight the changes that had occurred in Jewish thought between the events in the early Old Testament and the time of Christ.

Interpretation

Edersheim's work has a unique place in religious studies. It is not a history, because Edersheim does not merely describe history in the time of Christ. Furthermore, unlike mainstream historical scholars, Edersheim does not rely on secondary sources to make his historical arguments. On the contrary, Edersheim's view of history is largely constructed using scripture. Therefore, Edersheim's work must fall into the category of religious studies. However, it differs from most works in the genre because Edersheim does not purport to explain the faith-basis of a religion. Instead, Edersheim, working from the point-of-view that the holy writings of Judaism and early Christianity are factually accurate, attempts to describe typical Jewish life at the time of the Lord. Therefore, Edersheim's work is a religious-based history of ancient Jewish life. It is important to keep this in mind when reading Edersheim's work, because it lacks the traditional elements of verification that other forms of history need to have in order to be published or taken seriously.

The most helpful aspect of Edersheim's work may be his painstaking renditions of the boundaries and makeup of Palestine and Israel during the time of the Lord. It can be difficult for a modern audience, who has been inundated with conflict between Palestine and Israel for a lifetime, to understand that they were not always at war. In fact, during the period in question, it would be somewhat correct for one to describe Palestine and Israel as the same place. Palestine referred to a physical region that was largely populated by Jews. Israel could be used to refer to a physical region, but was also used to refer to an idea or concept of a state for Jewish people. Therefore, Israel was broader than the concept of Palestine. However, Palestine was the Holy Land and contained that land which Jews believed had been promised to them by God; the land of milk and honey. Political and religious differences are not the only things that separate the Palestine of today from the Palestine of the Lord's time. On the contrary, Edersheim points out that the Palestine of antiquity was not the desolate land of today. Instead, it was a beautiful, lush land, which could support extensive farming. In addition, while the Middle East is no longer a necessary thoroughfare for world traffic, Edersheim's painstaking history makes it clear that those who wished to travel from Europe into the East did so by going through Palestine. The result was a cosmopolitan country, whose inhabitants were constantly exposed to outside influences and ideas. However, Edersheim also points out that Jews were not anxious to communicate with outsiders. Therefore, while Palestine was somewhat cosmopolitan, Jews were forbidden to learn subjects like heathen science. The result was that Jews were exposed to and influenced by outside cultures, but that they made attempts to limit the extent of that influence. The difference schools of thought which existed at the time of Christ make it clear that not all Jews agreed on the amount of influence the outside world should exert.

The main problem with Edersheim's work is that he is obviously a Christian, and he is attempting to construct an unbiased history of a time period that demands bias of a Christian. If the Bible tells the truth, then the entire purpose of Jesus' life was to provide Jews with an avenue of redemption. Therefore, it is seemingly impossible for a modern Christian to view Jews at the time as if they were living in a spiritual manner. This point-of-view is erroneous and reflects a modern bias. After all, at the time of the Lord, Christianity was not an option. Jesus was not a Christian, but a Jewish prophet. Therefore, one must constantly be aware of the potential for bias when reading a work like Edersheim's, because he is attempting to explain ancient Jewish life from the point-of-view of a modern Christian. Furthermore, one must also be aware of the difficulties in constructing historical facts about ancient Palestine. The land in question has been subjected to wars for thousands of years, which has resulted in the destruction of much of the physical evidence that anthropologists generally use to construct details about daily life. Given that Jews limited learning to religious matters, much of the written material that details daily life is contained within religious writings. Therefore, it is difficult to determine the factual accuracy of some of the details used by Edersheim and his fellow historians. As a result, one must be aware of possible bias in the source material, as well as bias by the investigating scholar. As a result, Edersheim's work must be viewed as a modern Christian's interpretation of Jewish life, using Jewish sources.

On the other hand, Edersheim's work does provide a very interesting context for the more-familiar stories in the Bible. For example, it is well-known that Jesus worked as a carpenter. However, the implications of Jesus working in that position can only be understand when one has the aide of a work such as Edersheim's. By reading Edersheim's explanations of the Jewish views on trade and commerce, it becomes clear that most Jewish men in the time of Christ had a trade. While prior generations of Jews had been nominally free landowners and may not have been required to engage in a trade, Palestine was under foreign rule and, in order to support themselves, Jews were required to turn to a trade. Furthermore, Edersheim also investigated whether certain trades were considered more acceptable than others. For example, perfumers and hairdressers were seen as lower than other professions. While Edersheim does not specifically address carpenters, he makes it clear that skilled craftsmen were required to build and maintain temples and that there was no stigma attached to such a profession. Therefore, placed within the context developed by Edersheim, the fact that Jesus was a carpenter bolsters the image of Jesus as an average Jewish man. It also answers a question that many people may have. Modern people have the expectation that preachers and other religious teachers should be able to support themselves through their work. The notion that a preacher needs to have a "day job" might bring into question the power of the message. This understanding makes it clear that Jesus' message could have gained far-reaching support without freeing Him of His need to bring provide his own means of support. Furthermore, Edersheim's emphasis on Jewish self-sufficiency makes it clear that Jesus would have been expected to work if he intended to eat.

Not all of Edersheim's explanations support the concept of Jesus as an average Jewish man. In fact, Edersheim devotes considerable time and effort to the description of Jewish family life. He makes it clear that Jewish men were considered to have a duty to marry, and that 20 was the upper limit for such marriages. The fact that Jesus never married would certainly have made him stand apart from the average Jewish male. Furthermore, when looking at the Gospel and the family life of the original Apostles, the lack of marriages among them would also help differentiate them from the Jews of the time. Edersheim is careful to make it clear that this particular aspect did actually differentiate them from other Jews, even though there were factions, most notably the Essenes, which largely eschewed the concept of matrimony. However, Jesus was not an Essene, and His failure to marry certainly differentiates Him from other men.

The fact that Edersheim spends such a large amount of time explaining the Jewish family structure and the role of women in Jewish society is interesting. Many modern Christians appear to labor under the assumption that early Christianity provided more opportunities for females than Judaism had. While this may have been true for some people, Edersheim makes it clear that Jewish women were afforded some measures of equality. For example, while women were not generally given the same type and breadth of religious instruction as men, Edersheim mentions that there were female rabbis. He also goes into some detail regarding the role of prominent Jewish women in the religion and the culture. By doing so, Edersheim makes it clear that Jesus was not breaking with the Jewish culture by giving women prominent roles in his ministry. However, he also makes it clear that Jesus was also not following some of the more traditionally restrictive tenets of the Jewish faith either.