Learning theories and applications in special education

¶ … theoretical approaches to learning and explores possibilities of learning applications to special education. A matrix is presented and the information in the matrix is explained within a professional setting that deals with special education. The theoretical approaches to learning provide the framework for development of leaning skills and are examined in detail.

Keywords: Learning, Learning theories, Cognitive development, Bandura's social learning, Pavlov, Classical condition, special education, Erikson's theory, social development theory, experiential learning.

Bandura's Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory by Bandura highlights the societal processes in learning suggesting that people learn from each other using the means of observation and imitation. This means that children watch and learn behavior of adults and family members and during the process of observation they pick up skills which they imitate. The theory of social learning requires an analysis of the psychological processes of motivation, attention and memory and these three cognitive processes enhance social learning as motivation is the basis of how far one is able to learn, memory helps in retention of learning principles and attention is necessary in observation as only keen attention aids the learning process. The theory seems to be a development of behaviorist theory although well connected to cognitive learning theory.

Bandura's theory is based on the assumption that people learn through observation and that most behaviors acquired by us have developed through learning and observing other people's behavior. While observing others, models of ideal behavior are formed and these models which serve as coded information are stored and later serve as proper guides that could be evoked for any subsequent action. As Bandura explained this, "Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action." (Bandura 1977). There is a continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral and environmental conditions and according to social learning theory, necessary conditions for effective modeling involves attention to elements such as complexity and functional value of behavior as well as sensory capacities of others, retention or memory through symbolic coding and mental imagery, reproduction of the image through physical capabilities and self observation and motivation to imitate the behavior learnt or factors that will help reinforce certain behaviors (Bandura, 1977). Bandura's thesis was based on reciprocal determinism which suggests that events and behavior cause each other and not only is environment responsible for behavior, the opposite is also true and behavior can change the environment as well. Personality and the learning process are constantly influenced by the interaction of the environment, behavior and psychological processes of mental imagery, coding etc. Bandura's social learning theory has been compared with Vygotsky's social development theory and Lave's situated learning theory both of which have elaborated on social learning.

Vygotsky's Social Development Theory

Social Development Theory developed by Vygotsky is based on constructivism and suggests that social interaction precedes development as cognition occurs as a process of social behavior and socialization. Social interaction plays a role in cognitive development and Vygotsky felt social learning tend to precede development as it is only through social learning that children develop cognition. Vygotsky stated "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)." (Vygotsky, 1978). There are two other important concepts in Vygotsky's social learning theory and this includes the More Knowledgeable Other or MKO and the Zone of Proximal Development or ZPD. The MKO refers to the more knowledgeable other from whom a particular task or concept is learned and this is very important as MKO is usually a social being from whom the child or individual learns certain behaviors. Thus he may be a teacher or a coach or a younger person or an older adult who the learner observes and picks up certain behaviors.

The Zone of Proximal Development or ZPD refers to a learner's ability to perform a task either under guidance or with collaboration and learning ability develops in this zone (Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky emphasized on connections between people, shared experiences and socio-cultural contexts, social interactions and all mediation through communication that enhances or contributes to social functions. Internalization of tools related to social learning helped in the development of cognitive ability. Vygotsky's theory of social development emphasizes on learning contexts and learning is seen as a reciprocal experience between student and teacher (Vygotsky, 1978).

Erikson's Stages of Development

Erikson identified eight stages of identity and psychosocial development and aspects of identity such as ego identity, personal identity and socio-cultural identity. Erikson's psychosocial theory considers how external factors as well as society could have an impact on personality development. Although personality development is explained for an entire life cycle and the stages are given as follows:

1. Infant (Hope) - Basic Trust vs. Mistrust

2. Toddler (Will) - Autonomy vs. Shame

3. Preschooler (Purpose) - Initiative vs. Guilt

4. School-Age Child (Competence) - Industry vs. Inferiority

5. Adolescent (Fidelity) - Identity vs. Identity Diffusion

6. Young Adult (Love) - Intimacy vs. Isolation

7. Middle-aged Adult (Care) - Generativity vs. Self-absorption

8. Older Adult (Wisdom) - Integrity vs. Despair

The eight stages of development are infancy until 18 months, stage of early childhood until 3 years, preschooler 3 to 5 years, late childhood until 12 years, adolescence until 18 years, young adult to 35 years, middle age until 55 and old age until death.

These eight stages, spanning from birth to death, are explained as follows.

1. Infancy: Birth-18 Months Old

Basic Trust vs. Mistrust - Hope

During this stage, the parent provides, food, shelter and security to the child and the child develops a sense of trust or mistrust and a thus a feeling of hope at this stage. This is also a learning process in which the child learns to trust not just parents but also strangers.

2. Early Childhood Years: 18 Months to 3 Years

Autonomy vs. Shame - Will

At this stage the child learns new skills, self-esteem and undergoes moral development. The child also develops a sense of certainty and can also show defiance, temper tantrums and stubbornness. At this stage learning skills are associated with the development of self-esteem.

3. Preschooler: 3 to 5 Years

Initiative vs. Guilt - Purpose

During this phase children try to imitate adults and develop their sense of guilt when they do something wrong. When they also move beyond the guilt and develop an initiative, a sense of purpose is learnt.

4. School Age Child: 6 to 12 Years

Industry vs. Inferiority - Competence

At this stage the child develops a significant relationship with peers, school, teaches and develops competence by learning special skills. This is the stage of learning different skills at home and school and the child generally expands the learning agenda.

5. Adolescent: 12 to 18 Years

Identity vs. Role Confusion - Fidelity

This stage involves developing and recognizing a sense of identity. The struggle of the adolescent is to fit in, and find his or her own place in this world and establish his unique identity. In this stage the child tends to learn responsibilities.

6. Young adult: 18 to 35

Intimacy and Solidarity vs. Isolation - Love

At this stage, young adults tend to seek deeper relationships and satisfying partnerships and if they have failed relationships or are unable to develop positive social connections, isolation may occur.

7. Middle-aged Adult: 35 to 55 or 65

Generativity vs. Self absorption or Stagnation - Care

There is a sense of responsibility towards family and the greater society and individuals begin to work productively towards a higher goal of generativity and learn to build better families and social lives. Failing this stagnation and self absorption may occur.

8. Late Adult: 55 or 65 to Death

Integrity vs. Despair - Wisdom

Individuals want to reflect on life with a feeling of contentment and want to be happy that they have contributed significantly to society. A sense of integrity and satisfaction for what has been done during the lifetime would lead to wisdom otherwise despair would follow.

Kolb's Experiential Learning

Kolb presented a four-stage cyclical theory of learning emphasizing on experiential learning theory with a holistic perspective. The most important elements of learning seem to be experience, perception, cognition, and behavior and these elements also form the basis of his learning theory. Kolb stated "learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience" (1984, p. 38). Thus Kolb believed that learning itself is an experience and this he explained with four stages including concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation.

The sequence of these four stages is given as:

concrete experience (or "DO")

reflective observation (or "OBSERVE")

abstract conceptualization (or "THINK")

active experimentation (or "PLAN")

Figure from learning theories.com

The four stage learning cycle shows how concrete experience of a task or situation is translated into observation and reflection of concepts and this in turn leads to active experimentation and formation of new concepts that are tested in new situations. After exposure to the experience as through concrete experience, the learner reflects on the experience and conceptualizes on the model leading to active experimentation of the model or theory (Kolb, 1984).

Kolb identified four learning styles corresponding to these four stages. These are:

assimilators, who depend on concepts or logical theories and arguments convergers, who learn from the practical applications of theories as through testing or experimentation accommodators, who depend on their concrete hands on real life experiences to complete the learning process divergers, who tend to learn through observation and reflection of the situations identified

Piaget's Stage Theory of Cognitive Development

Piaget has discussed four distinct stages of cognitive development in children and these are sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete, and formal. Cognitive development is the underlying foundation for all learning and Piaget developed the four stage model of cognitive development and opined that all children will go through these general four stages. Piaget's theory of Cognitive development is among the most influential learning theories as it describes in detail how children acquire learning and cognitive skills through different stages of development.

Sensorimotor stage (Birth to 2 years). During the sensorimotor stage infants interact with the environment and learn how to use the senses and hands, movement to interact with objects. They develop a sense of object permanence and learning is by using information and organizing the information into schemas.

Preoperational stage (ages 2 to 4). The child uses physical situations to learn and can differentiate objects and shapes at this stage.

Concrete operations (ages 7 to 11). At this stage the child conceptualizes his or her physical experiences and can think abstractly or beyond what is seen.

Formal operations (beginning at ages 11 to 15). At this stage objects are no longer necessary for formal judgments as conceptualization in abstract thinking is well developed and the child can make rational judgments with reasoning ability.

The learning theories discussed here suggest that learning skills could be developed in a number of ways although all these theories suggest that learning is a part of cognitive development and in most cases children undergo learning when they develop skills for social interaction. Learning and social development are closely related as learning occurs due to interaction with the social environment. Skills are learnt and learning causes change through our understanding of concepts. Learning thus almost always happens when concepts are stored in the form of mental images which are then accessed in new situations. Learning is thus highly generalized and skills acquired in one situation could be applicable to another. This has been especially explained in classical conditioning although behaviorist theories may have become unpopular due to complete denial of mind. The inner psychological processes during learning as taken up by almost all theorists except behaviorists form an important part of learning and the essential elements of learning seem to be motivation, memory and observation/reflection and all these elements are essential to the learning process. Learning has been explained as a process as in Kolb's theory and in stages as in Erikson's theory and simply as a stimulus response automated reaction as explained in Pavlov's theory. This discussion suggests how the learning skills theory could be best applied to special education needs setting as these theories help to understand how learning occurs and what would be the emphasis of learning methods in special education classrooms.

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