Theory Foundations of Personality

Abstract
Dozens of research studies have supported the hypothesis that personality traits change as one becomes older. However, what triggers these changes in personality traits? How do these changes take place? This paper investigates some of the answers to these complex questions. It does so by comparing six theories on personality development. All the theories are backed by evidences which will also be discussed. The paper ends by providing a conclusion on the factors that are driving personality changes and development.
Introduction
Personality traits change with time. In fact, it is well-accepted that the changes are lifelong. There is no single moment in time that personality remains the same. However, the sources of these changes are not known. Of course, there are multiple theories that try to explain this. Some theories argue that personality changes are caused by the environment, others argue that personality changes are caused by social roles (often influenced by age), while others posit that personality changes are influenced by biological ageing (Kandler, 2012). Most psychologists and other researchers study personality by first describing and measuring certain behavioral differences and then try to hypothesize how those differences occur. Most look at personality as one thing rather than a gathering of strangely related bits and pieces of behavioral tendencies. According to Xavier (1996), personality is the sum of one’s observable behavior, feelings and his or her thinking patterns.
At the core of research on personality and personality development is the understanding that individuals are systematically different from one another on a number of characteristics. These characteristics may be in the domain of observable behavior, feelings or thinking patterns. Many psychologists agree that these characteristics are often stable for a while but often change with time or with situation (Bencsik, Machova & Hevesi, 2016). This paper looks at the foundations of personality. The very first influences that shape initial personalities. It also looks at the development of personality.
Foundations of Personality
Several theories and hypotheses have been proposed to explain how personality traits initially develop. In this section of the paper, we discuss some of the most influential among them.
Nature Vs Nurture
Nature refers to nature or more correctly things which are natural/ innate. In the context of personality development it denotes natural/ genetic traits. Nurture, on the other hand, refers to changes influenced by experience/ external environment (Nature vs Nurture in Behavioral Determination, 2017). It is clear and probably undebatable that humans inherit physical characteristics from their parents. However, the inheritance of behavior is not always accounted for by genetics. Some behaviors are usually clearly different from those exhibited by the parent. Hence the conclusion that humans acquire some of their behavioral characteristics from personal experiences/ surroundings. Thus, most researchers often agree that, in general, human behavior is a product of both nature and nurture (Bryner, 2006). Geneticists and other scientists have proven severally that physical traits such as hair, skin and eye color are a direct result of genetic inheritance. They are influenced by certain genes that are known. Other researchers have also taken genetic studies a step further and conducted studies in which they concluded that even behavioral traits such as intelligence, kindness or aggression are also genetically acquired (determined by nature) (Nature vs Nurture in Behavioral Determination, 2017).
Though the evidence for nature-influenced personality traits is there, it is not as much as the evidence put forth to support nurtured personality traits. Widespread research in psychology and related subjects have proven that the environment is chiefly responsible for acquired behavioral traits. Some of the more famous researches include those by Watson and by Pavlov who made significant contributions to the development of operant conditioning and classical theories that seek to explain the formation of personality traits through environmental nurturing. However, it is also widely agreed that the environment may only be helping express genetically acquired traits that were hitherto downplayed. Thus, many psychologists have concluded that both nature and nurture play an important role in the formation of behavior. That nurture expresses itself but most of nature-influenced traits are usually expressed through exposure to certain environments. In conclusion, the most personality traits are caused by nurture (surroundings) while some are caused by nature (Nature vs Nurture in Behavioral Determination, 2017).
The Unconscious and its influence Personality
According to Freud, there are unconscious forces that influence the development of personality. He argues that for one to full comprehend personality, it important to first understand what is meant by the term unconscious. He goes ahead to state that the unconscious is the component of personality that one is not aware about but can play a role in determining personality. Another renowned researcher, Carl Jung, had similar thoughts to those of Freud. His personality development theory is founded on the assumption that the psyche/ mind has levels – the conscious level and the unconscious level. According to him, the unconscious level has two further levels, the collective (historical/ ancestral) unconscious and the personal (experiential) unconscious (Xavier, 1996).
The unconscious is defined as that level of the mind that brings completeness to personality. It is basically the psychic elements that are not influenced by ego. It includes both previously forgotten conscious thoughts and images and psychic processes that have never been exposed to the conscious level of the brain. Some of these psychic processes/ elements can get to the conscious level of the brain but not all. Jung used the term personal unconscious to refer to the unique individual experiences that are subliminally perceived, forgotten or repressed in the unconscious level of the brain. The experiences that form the personal unconscious are referred to as complexes when they are themes of a particular feeling, behavior or thought process. Complexes have a significant influence on personality (Xavier, 1996).
Unlike the personal unconscious, the collective unconscious is not determined by personal/ individual experiences. Rather, it is determined by the ancestral past. It is inherited from parents as a psychic potential. The collective unconscious actively influences actions, feelings and thought processes. This part of the unconscious is revealed by activity. To explain, the unconscious in an even better way, Xavier (1996) argues that humans come into the world predisposed to react or act in a certain manner when their surroundings trigger those predispositions. In this way, the collective unconscious also influences the development of personality.
View of Self and its influence on personality
Essentially, self-concept is determined by social surroundings (Gore & Cross, Susan, 2005). Some have described it as the thing that binds together our experiences making them coherent in the mind. Self-concept is thought to be rooted in cognitive structures and semantic memory. It is also thought to be made up of several hierarchically-organized dimensions stored in memory. These dimensions which include social, experiential and schematic dimensions work together to provide the singular view of self.
The self is a collection of lower order self-aspects including abilities, beliefs, surroundings, identities, social roles, relationships, traits and experiences. These lower level self-aspects can be organized into higher level self-domains e.g. relational self. Lower level self-aspects do change. They change may be caused by their influence on each other. As they change, the influence the higher order self-domain to change accordingly. This in turn changes the overall self-concept (Gore & Cross, Susan, 2005).
Additionally, changes in self-concept do not imply that the individual will experience changes in his self-structure. Self-structure is defined as the extent to which self-aspects cognitively interact or are compartmentalized from one another. Persons with well-integrated self-structures can utilize several dimensions of their self when exposed to a unique set of aspects. This is in contrast to persons with compartmentalized self-structures who can only use a single dimension of their personality when exposed to a particular set of aspects (Gore & Cross, Susan, 2005).
Self-concept works similarly to cognitive abilities. Individuals come to have their view of self in the same way they come to comprehend the definition of cats, objects or any other thing; by utilizing the cognitive schema. The self-schema is a significant. It helps with the processing of information related to social experiences. It is thought that new environmental experiences experienced a few times are less likely to be ingrained in the brain compared to those that occur frequently. The frequent occurrence makes it to become a part of the self-concept as the human brain is wired to record and memorize consistencies (Gore & Cross, Susan, 2005).
According to researchers looking into attitude, the more someone does something that activates the main components of his or her attitude, the more likely the brain is to process that trigger with more attention and resources. Strong attitudes require more conscious examination to change while weak attitude can easily change with very little stimuli. In short the stronger the self-concept, the more difficult it is to change it, while the weaker it is the easier it is to change the concept and the resulting behavior (Gore & Cross, Susan, 2005).
In general, the human brain is pays great attention to stimuli/ messages in the surroundings that speak to the individual’s personality. Therefore, any message that contains some information touching on self results in a spike in the brain’s processing activity as a result of self-reference. Human beings are creatures of habit. Most of the times you will find most people in surroundings that they are already familiar with. In such environments there are often plenty of stimuli/ environmental cures that the brain is already recognizing as familiar to the person. Or as offering messages that are compliant to the kind of person the individual is. While these is happening most other information or stimuli that is considered by the brain to be irrelevant to self is discarded. Thus, most people are likely to express a certain trait in certain environments because that’s what the environment and previous experiences are telling them they are. And since we rarely change our environments, we will continue to explain certain traits until we are exposed to new environments with new stimuli (Gore & Cross, Susan, 2005)
Progression of Personality
Personality Progression/ Development
Learning in its many different forms including training, imitation, conditioning often plays a significant role in personality development. Through repetition and through the reward of satisfaction, we learn about approved social roles, we socially adjust ourselves, we form characteristic reactions to certain situations and people and ultimately, we form our views of self. It often happens slowly developing our self-concept as the things we learn and the ways we respond become habitual and form integral parts of someone behavioral traits. Social conditioning/ pressures in the environments we are in also determine what is incorporated into the accepted patterns. For example, if a girl is encouraged to be kind and feminine to certain situations and rewarded by comments or actual gifts for being so, then she will make a habit/ learn to always react to all relevant situations in a kind and feminine way.
One the other hand, if reacting to situations in a kind manner only brings about social disapproval, the girl will adjust her behavior and react in other ways until she finds the right behaviors that bring her the reward her mind craves. She will then repeat these new behaviors and form a habit. Understanding that learning plays a significant role in the progression of personality is crucial for two main reasons. First, it reveals that there is a role that parents/ teachers can play in helping children or young persons to develop certain personality traits, through teaching, rewarding and social adjustment. Second, it reveals that socially unacceptable behavioral traits and self-concepts can and are usually changed through social adjustment (Unit 2: DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY: ROLE' OF HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT, n.d).
Motivation and its effect on Personality Development
Motivation to act in certain ways comes either from external or internal factors. One of the most famous Greek philosophers, Epicurus, was of the hedonistic argument that most people are motivated by their internal desire for pleasure (or avoidance of pain). For hundreds of years, this was the accepted school of thought. However, researchers and other philosophers and psychologists soon came to the understanding that there are two categories of motivations – internal motivations and external motivations. It is now also agreed that those who are internally or intrinsically motivated often get their determination from a very young age. From when they were children. They are trained by their parents and those who are close to them to drive towards certain goals (Bencsik, Machova & Hevesi, 2016). This is in contrast to those who are externally/ extrinsically motivated. Their goals or determinations are driven by their environments/ the wider social groups they find themselves in. Through mass media and through personal experiences, these people acquire and express certain traits (Bencsik, Machova & Hevesi, 2016).
According to Plaminek (2010), from the motivation point of view, there are four main kinds of people. Specifying people, harmonizing people, directive people and exploring people. By specifying people, Plaminek is referring to those people who are motivated to improve/ develop themselves. He says that these types of people are often reliable and pay great attention to detail. He also says that they people are also sticklers for norms and rules, social or otherwise and that their behaviors are predictable. By harmonizing people, Plaminek (2010), is referring to those whose motivation is to create favorable, peaceful conditions for themselves. He argues that these people are usually very pleasant and work to build the perfect living conditions (Bencsik, Machova & Hevesi, 2016). The goal of directive people is to lead others. They often find ways to influence or convince others about the way to be followed. Such people feel they need to put others to follow certain norms. Lastly, Plaminek (2010), argues that you can classify people are exploring people. By this he is referring to those who are motivated by challenges. They perceive challenges as new opportunities to discover new things or learn new things (Bencsik, Machova & Hevesi, 2016).
Age/ Maturation and its effects on Personality
Personality traits change throughout one’s entire lifespan. A number of theories have been put forth to explain why personal/ behavioral traits change over time (Specht et al., 2014). From the late adolescence stage, most individuals often begin expressing traits that show they are becoming more socially mature. Thus, most people often wonder why most young adults exhibit this kind of positive change in behavior (Bleidorn, 2015). Some thing it is inspired by internal biological factors others think that it is influenced by changes in the surroundings/ environment (Bleidorn, 2015). The two leading theories that have been relied upon to provide the answer to why maturity almost always brings about a positive change in behavior offer contrasting explanations to the phenomena (McCrae & Costa, 2008). The two theories are the framework of social-investment theory and the five-factor theory. According to the framework of social-investment theory (SIT), life transitions such as joining campus, beginning to work, marrying or starting a family that are determined by age, also trigger personality maturation because they create new social roles for individuals (Roberts, Wood, & Smith, 2005). The new roles come with new societal expectations. They often naturally impose behavioral changes as that’s the only way the individual will get ‘rewards’ from the society (Bleidorn, 2015). This is in contrast to the five-factor theory that contends that personality maturation is determined by genetically influenced traits and that the environment has very little influence on the matter (McCrae & Costa, 2008). Based on the evidences put forth for both theories, the SIT theory seems to have a better explanation for what causes personality maturation as one becomes older.
Biblical Integration
a. Nature versus Nurture
Nature versus nurture is an age-old argument as to what influences behavior more than the other. Proponents of the nature line of thought argue that behavioral traits are natural/ innate. That they are inherited from parent to child biologically genetic means. Nurture advocates are of the idea that the environment plays a more significant role in the development of personality traits. However, from the Judeo-Christian perspective, the natural mind is hostile to God. The bible has several verses that explain how natural mind in itself is ungodly. It argues that there is a need to nurture the mind so that it can follow the true path. Several passages in the scripture are important to understanding the biblical support for nurture. First, to understand hostility, have a look at Colossians 1:21 (NIV). This verse stresses that the natural mind is not spiritual. Proverbs 23:33 also argues that the mind in itself imagines confusing things. According the bible, the transition is not instantaneous. It is a process that is led by the spirit (Romans 8:6). And that the mind, the intelligence, the memory and the schools of thought are often renewed by changing the attitude of the mind (Eph 4:23) and adopting a new way of living (Phlp 2:5) (Santrac, 2016).
b. The Unconscious and its influence on Personality
The unconscious informs some of the decisions we make in our day to day lives. The unconscious level of the mind is made up of contents that are informed by our ancestral past and experiences that have been pushed to the back of our minds. Emotions are also informed by our unconscious. Especially the collective unconscious. Some of the most prominent emotions in the human life include the fear of separation from those we are close to, the fear of losing control, the fear of harm and even the fear of death. From the Christian viewpoint, these emotions are accepted as natural thinking. Nevertheless, several parts of biblical scripture explain different ways through which one can avoid being fearful of some of these emotions. One such scripture states that it is through Christ that individuals overcome the fear of death and death itself (Heb 2:14). The bible also openly states that the love of Christ is sufficient for overcoming the fear of separation and that he keeps us away from harm (Rm 8:31-39; Rv 11:15; 1 Jn 5:18). Also, the scriptures are clear that the presence of Christ is the key to staying spiritually alive (Phlp 4:13). Essentially, these scriptures and the bible as a whole serve to neutralize fear and fearful thoughts from the unconscious and the conscious levels of the mind (Santrac, 2016).
c. The view of self and its effect on personality
Several psychological theories and hypotheses try to explain how one’s self-concept can affect his or her propensity to behave in a certain way. We earlier discussed the interaction of some self-aspects and the compartmentalization of other self-aspects. The Christian way of thinking is that the human mind is generally compartmentalized. But that Christ unifies all the different compartments of the mind, body and soul into one holistic body that works in the way God intended it to work (Santrac, 2016).
d. Personality development
‘Christian psychology’ posits that many people nowadays spend a lot of time trying to gain worldly carnal or intellectual knowledge. The Christian life is totally different from this way of life. It is mostly a life of self-limitation so as to gain full-knowledge which is the knowledge of Christ that brings purpose and meaning to life. According to Christian scriptures, by knowing (or obeying Christ) he or she will develop a personality that is Christ-centered. Meaning it is full of love for neighbors and for humanity. This kind of life can obviously lead to the development of a strong, mature personality that doesn’t overwhelmingly focus on self.
e. Motivation and its influence on Personality
There are internal and external types of motivations that influence character traits. Modern sociologists argue that morality can also influence character/ personality traits as it plays a significant role in the construction of social identities. Moreover, morality also helps us to keep the social identities we have formed especially during times when we do or are an environment that is inconsistent with that identity. This argument is in agreement with the well-accepted evolutionary model of human development. Thus, both sociology and psychology are in agreement as to the importance of morality in helping one to know right from wrong. This knowledge is referred to as conscience. The bible agrees that everyone is born with a conscience. However, in several instances throughout the bible, we are told that conscience is not a fully reliable means of distinguishing between right and wrong. Also, in several instances throughout the scriptures, we are informed of the different types of conscience including a weak conscience, a defiled conscience, a seared conscience, a pure conscience and a clear conscience. From these different types of conscience, it is clear that the scriptures imply that the conscience can be influenced by outside sources to become evil or weak (1 Cor 8:7, 12; Tt 1:15; 1 Tm 4:2; Heb 10:22; Ac 24:16; 1 Tm 3:9; Ac 23:1) (Santrac, 2016).
f. Maturation and its influence on Personality
In psychology, maturation is caused by changing age-related roles that impose societal expectations and needs for change in behavior and personality. In Christian literature, ‘maturation’ or the assumption of a more Christ-like behavior is a supernatural occurrence that is started by the acceptance of Christ and His power to transform one’s life and to redirect him or her from sin (Santrac, 2016).
Conclusion
The development of personality is influenced by a variety of factors including genetics, environment, leaning, and socialization. Genetics influence physical and some personality traits such as intelligence. The environment plays an even bigger part in personality development. Biblical literature agrees with some of the psychological theories and hypotheses that inform our understanding of personality. Most of the scripture is centered on Christ and how He can help develop personality. The means through which Christ or Christian life develops personality are mostly the same means and processes that are proposed by psychologists to explain personality development. They include obedience (learning) and the ‘nurturing’ of a Christ-centered lifestyle.
References
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