Gary Kessler's approach to studying Western religion objectively

Western Religion

In his book, "Western Ways of Being Religious," (Kessler, 1999) the author Gary E. Kessler identifies the theological, philosophical and societal ramifications of the evolution of religion in the West. Christianity, Judaism and Islam can be traced to a single origin but their divergence has been very marked. Kessler sets his thesis very early in the book. He avers that there are two approaches to religion. One is to be immersed in it -- as a practitioner; the other is to study it as an objective observer, looking in from the outside. This work is unique. The author challenges the traditional notions with his own opinions then follows it with the views of an expert on that notion (in the form of a speech or an essay). He avers that a student of religion has to approach the topic with honesty and openness. This often involves imagining the other's point-of-view by putting oneself in the position of another, especially views with which the student disagrees. The scholarly element has to also click in -- in the form of critical analyses. Kessler is aware of the emotional aspects of religion. He cautions that the student has to be sensitive and tolerant to opinions of others. The student also has to approach his subject with caution and a lack of bias. Objectivity engenders a concept called "spiritual regret." Here the student perceives that the object of his study has features that he or she cannot partake of as a practitioner of a different "lesser" religion.

The four experts Lee Yearley (spiritual regret) (pp. 7-14), Rem Edwards (clustering of religions based on similarities in various active and passive philosophies) (pp. 21-24) (Proudfoot, 1985, 263) weigh in providing objective seminal opinions on these points raised by Gary E. Kessler

Recognizing the diversity of religions goes a long way in an objective scholarly pursuit of religion. An imagination is necessary because the best way to understand another religion is to put oneself in the position of the practitioner of that religion. Yearley supports this view with the need to develop a new set of virtues that force us beyond the comfort-zones of religious views that we have while practicing or studying our own religions. This is spiritual regret and it involves recognizing other beliefs no matter how much at variance from out own. Others disagree that manufacturing or evolving virtues is akin to manufacturing evidence to support a spurious claim. Yearley believes that this virtue is paramount for religious diversity (p. 11). It enables us to go beyond treating other religions as heresies or cults. Another defense mechanism is to assume that the other religion is only superficial and all religions are one and the same. All these are defeatist to true diversity. Care has also to be taken, according to Yearley, that when the comfort zone of a person is breached, spiritual regret is inappropriate.

Kessler avers that in order to understand another religion it is necessary to adequately define that religion. He cautions the student, however, that most definitions of religion are inadequate or twisted based on the agenda of the person providing the definition. These factors can be cultural, theological, philosophical and historical. An essential definition is also lacking because it is does not make the definition unique. (p. 18) Careful attention should be paid to the bandying about of the word "sacred," especially when it is broadly defined; and, especially, when the definition does not seem divinely ordained. Being sacred to many might mean different things and is not necessarily religious. Essential definitions are divided into substantive and functional definitions. Ethnocentricity also makes these definitional waters murkier. (p. 19) A western religion would not play well in the orient because it is at odds with that thought from several perspectives. It is also important to identify the differences between spirituality and religion. Rem Edwards has proposed a unique methodology to identify religious thought between religions. This "clustering" technique involves an ordinate axis of all the major religions; while the abscissa contains various characteristics of religions. Matches are given a "P" (present) rank and mismatches are given an "A" (Absent) rank. The closeness of different religions is then scaled based arranged based on the most Ps to the most As. (pp. 22-23) proper study of a religion is paradoxically, incomplete unless it is comprehensive. Every facet has to be taken into account. This holds true, especially for comparative studies of religions, where if comparisons of only a few facets are undertaken, the picture is misleading. William Paden suggests certain perspectives to avoid the pitfalls of the comparative endeavors where these studies might be used to denigrate other religions and consequently harm its practitioners. (p. 30) Paden asks that we study every facet of the religion from an objective viewpoint. The historical view is perhaps the most unbiased. Paden argues that similarities should be identifiable by using analogies and not direct explicit comparisons. Also important, are an objective understanding of the differences between religions.

Wayne Proudfoot argues for comparing religions by stripping them to their cores of all the details which obfuscate true studies. He analyzes this process, which is called reductionism. Proudfoot informs that any attempt at reductionism inevitably removes facets that are important to the religion. Religion and everything related to it often evokes strong emotions. "Reducing" religion of the emotional aspect is counterproductive. Explanatory reductionism on the other hand is perhaps the most even-handed way of studying religion in that it does not discount any specific aspect of it, except the person directly involved. (p. 32-33)

In summary therefore, in order to understand another religion we have to put ourselves in the position of its practitioners, keep an honest and open mind and study that religion (in conjunction with the one we practice) in every facet: spiritual, cultural, historical, philosophical, rational, ethnocentric and theological. Every instinct to "attack" another religion merely because it is different should be ignored, even if it is contrary to ones frame of reference. Special considerations are when a religion reaches cult status, specially, when it violates basic moral and ethical rules that go to the core of humanity rather than religion. Even in these cases a distinction must be made between the teachings of the religion as has been handed down historically vs. The cultural interpretations of its contemporary practitioners.

Historical Development of the Traditions

Judaism

Each time the Shema Y'israel is recited (p. 39), the Jews speak and listen to God secure in the knowledge that they are the chosen people. Judaism is the World's oldest religion and there are several facets to it. Historically, from the beginning of record-keeping to the present time, Judaism is not one seamless historical construct. On the contrary it went through four periods of distinct changes. Not just different eras, but differences in philosophical and social thought. Judaism began when Abraham established his tribe to Mesopotamia (present day Iraq). This tribe flourished until the Egyptians enslaved them. The Exodus into the Promised Land under the leadership of Moses marked a turning point. This resulted in the creation of Israel and the first Jewish state.

The first conquest of the established Jews took place in 586 B.C.E. By the Babylonians. Jewish customs did not cease throughout these turbulent times. (p. 43) When the Persian, on defeating the Babylonians, restored the Jewish stature, Judaism began to resurge in Israel. After the death and resurrection of Christ, when Christian feeling began to take root, the Roman Empire began to increase its dominance; Jews (along with early Christians) also endured persecution. Circa 70 C.E., the temple of Jerusalem was burned the second time. While the time and events following the first destruction of the Temple was called the age of diversity, this second time is called the age of definition. Each of these eras produced a reawakening and resurgence of Jewish thought. After the temple's second destruction, it was only after 300 years the Israel was returned to the Jews. (p. 44)

The time between 640 to almost modern times is called the age of cogency. This was a period when Judaism flourished. This success was largely a product of being open to changes and evolving with the time. The age of cogency, in one way, also restricted the spread of Judaism. No doubt the Jews by now inhabited various parts of the world. But at the same time Christian and Islamic followers were also flourishing. The last two hundred years up to present time is also called the Second age of diversity (p. 45). During this time Judaism underwent several upheavals -- some of them catastrophic. In earlier times, Jews were banished from the Iberian countries. Later, the pogroms orchestrated by the Tsars blessings in Russia (Gurock, 1997, xv, 486) The unique aspect of the Jewish is their ability to rebound with almost geometric proportions. This concept came to be known as Zionism. It combined a feeling of resignation and making the best of circumstances with whatever they had. Education is the primary thread that binds the Jews. Education is to be had on penalty of Sin.

The author Neusner avers that there are several forms of Judaism -- each presenting a different viewpoint based on culture and philosophy. Rabbinic and Talmudic Judaism are two of the main. (pp. 41-49) Contemporarily, secularism has taken root under the strength of Western culture. Incidentally the Torah has also undergone severe changes. The Torah was destroyed after first Temple's destruction. When the Jews were restored to Israel, the Torah was revived and was made available to everybody. It included the Tannakh (The Hebrew Bible) (p. 45), which contained the Pentateuch, Books of the Biblical Patriarchs and smaller books. During the age of cogency, the notion of the dual (written and oral) Torah arose (p. 71). This helped bring the messages of Judaism to many people. The Torah means "instruction."

The Jews were given the freedom to practice the religion (by virtue of Amendments to the Constitution) in the United States. Presently two schools of Judaism exist, at least in philosophy. The reformed Jews who espouse more of the western cultural mores and the orthodox Jews who are against significant reform, which they consider a dilutant that takes away from how practice of the religion was intended. Conservative Judaism, which believes in keeping to the Jewish tenets while also adhering to the demands of modern society seeks a middle ground between the orthodoxy and the reform-minded followers.

Elie Wiesel, probably the most famous Holocaust Survivor, in a poignant essay gives a thumbnail sketch of the physical, emotional and mental attributes of a Jew during the second coming of diversity (pp. 89-93). His story bespeaks directly the salvation of Jews and their suffering. Judith Plaskow also provides a definitive voice for Jewish women (pp. 93-97). She bemoans the secondary role that women have played in Jewish history right from the time that Abraham traveled with Sarah pretending to be his sister where she had no say in this new designation. Ms. Plaskow bemoans the fact that this secondary status was created not by suppression but by the omission of a woman's role in Jewish affairs -- cultural and spiritual.

Islam

In 610 C.E. An illiterate man Muhammad Ibn Abdullah was contemplating his mundane existence when a voice commanded him to recite. The simple man was confounded and afraid. But over a period of time he learned to recognize that he was the channel for the most beautiful words mandated by Allah. This was the beginning of Islam, the religion of Peace. Muhammad discovered that he had a certain role to play. He was the prophet through whom Allah communicated to his people. (p. 171)

Islam is a relatively young religion. Christianity and Judaism flourished in the areas where Muhammad resided. The Islamic doctrine therefore also finds in its origins some ideas from the other two major religions. Being a Muslim means submitting to the Word of Allah. With 837 million practitioners in the world, Islam is the dominant religion in 56 countries. Surprisingly, Indonesia and not some of the Middle Eastern countries, boasts most of his adherence with India, a predominantly Hindu nation, having the second largest followers. There are several sects in Islam. The Sunni Muslims are the vast majority. The Shiites are the minority. Culturally, Muslims come from all walks of life. The idea of a Bedouin Arab as the portrait of a Muslim is a fallacy.

The place of Muslim worship is the masjid (p. 174). There is no official clergy but the imam is generally in charge of the proceedings. The religious book is the Qur'an. These are composed of passages or verses called Surahs. Arabic is the language of the Qur'an. The beauty of Allah's missives in the opinion of most renders it untranslatable in other languages. Within the Qur'an are embedded hadiths or religious edicts that every body is obliged to follow (p. 179). The law that governs Islam contemporarily is called the Shariah. There are different schools of Sunni thought. These are: Shafite, Hanafite, Hanbalite and Malikite. (p. 192)

Historically, by 1200 the religious, ritualistic processes were established. In 1500 however the timetable of Islamic evolution marks a locus of division. It was the time when three major Islamic societies rose in different parts of the world. Each was unique and maintained a cultural heritage akin to the region but did not budge from the basic Islamic ideal. Medina was also established as a site for Islamic origins. This was where Muhammad was forced to go with his followers on being harassed by the powers that be in Mecca. The quest for expansion was very strong. The force of the new Muslims seriously undermined the civilizations of the time where they strengthened their positions in the Middle East and parts of Africa. (p. 175)

Other minor sects of Islam are the Sufis (pp. 201-202). Sufism, which engenders a deep almost ecstatic internalization of devotion, had many followers especially among women. Women who were traditionally left out of customary Islamic practices felt that this was a medium to express their spirituality. Another sect that is better known as the whirling dervishes also espouses this energy required in seeking a state of grace.

Islam as its origins never took root in Western civilization. Today, its immigrant-followers mostly import Islam to western countries. Western capitalist civilization also threatens to take control of the whole world with its promises of affluence and democracy. The Islamic countries are at odds with the western world. It would be unfair to castigate a religion in light of recent events, but Islamic scholars believe that Islam is struggling to maintain its identity in a losing battle. These scholars aver that it is indeed possible to maintain deep-seated submission to God while embracing modernism.

On the subject of women, there is no other religion where women are relegated to second-class status than women. As Fatima Mernissi avers, men show submission to Allah, but women are submissive to Allah and the male Muslim population. The atrocities of the Taliban where women were not given access to education or even allowed to walk on the street unescorted are good examples. (pp. 220-226) Ms. Mernissi indicates that, hermeneutically, Islam is now interpreted in a quasi-Marxist manner -- that the society was bigger than the individual. Ms. Mernissi shows also, during the origins of Islam women held an equal of better place. That equity has been eroded to a point where in Wahabbism -- men would rather have girls burned alive than run out of a burning school building without the modesty-preserving hijab and chaddor.

Theological Issues and Interpretations

Judaism

The Tannakh or Old Testament describes the creation of the World where one and only one God is present. The same God destroys the whole world in a flood except for the putative descendants of Noah. God commands Abraham to move, He gives him a son though his wife is well past childbearing years. The same God tests the faith of Abraham when he orders him to sacrifice Isaac. Generations later, God guides Moses every step of the way to the Promised Land. During the Exodus, God establishes a guideline for moral living through the Ten Commandments. While on his way to Mt. Sinai, the newly minted Israelites lose faith and create a golden calf. But they soon relent when faced with Moses' wrath. The first commandment bespeaks the monotheism that Jewish are required to practice: "I am the Lord your God. You shall have no strange Gods before me." God established several covenants with the Jewish people.

This is the God of the Jews. This is YHWH (Yahweh). Jews have worshipped the same YHWH since the beginning of time (p. 48). Every time God spoke to the Jews he prefaced a reference to himself as: Lord, Your God. Prophets have played an important role in Jewish doctrine. They should not however, be confused with God. They are merely channels in the determinant of the Messianic Prophecy. Philo of Alexandria puts the creation of the world in perspective. He avers that the One God of the Jews put together the world in a systematic manner in a way that a city planner needs meticulous research and cogent thinking. No matter how one breaks down Jewish Theology there is only one God. The Angels of Truth and Light do aid God, but their prominence is nothing compared to the sheer luminosity that emanates from one God.

The Torah was delivered to Moses on Mount Sinai. The Torah declares that salvation or partaking in his covenants requires steadfastness of faith and spirit, clean living and a loving and generous nature to one's brethren. Anybody that adheres to this edict will have joy, peace and God's benediction. The Talmud also interprets God's statements of: "Be fruitful and multiply." In addition, Jews are also required to abide by the thirteen principles of faith. Each of these principles is involved in the greater Glory of God.

Rabbinical scholar Solomon Schechter shows how a modern Jew should live (in the United States). These tenets have been called the Pittsburgh Platform. The principles embedded talk about a realism that accompanies modernity while still holding to what God has ordained. (pp. 79-80)

Christianity

One if the fundamental differences between Jews and Christians is the ubiquity of Jesus Christ in the latter. Jews still await the fulfillment of the Messianic Prophecy, where as Christians wait for the return of Jesus Christ at the time of Judgment Day so graphically portrayed in the Book of Revelations and poetically (but mostly in the same way) by Michael Wigglesworth (Wigglesworth and Murdock, 1966, 94). We know that throughout the various upheavals in the evolution of Judaism, there has never been a doubt as to the singularity of God. With Christians (and also Jewish) the definitions can be extended to include: Omnipotent (ever powerful), omnipresent (present everywhere), omniscient (all knowing), Good and Not-wanting. If one can find such one or more entities that match the above requirements, we can then resort to pantheism (as in Hinduism). But Christians do not. Because, Christianity also believes that there is one and only one God.

A little confusion arises which is worth but a small pause. In the body of Jesus Christ, the Bible tells us that, "God became Man, so that one day, Man might become God." Even little children begin any lesson on religion by invoking the concept of the Trinity -- Three Gods in One. The Father; the Son; and, the Holy Spirit. The sign of the cross is the part of every Christian religious action. While the notion of Three Gods is confusing, the "In One" can easily dispel it. God (the Father) is at the center, the head and all around this Trinity -- Christianity proclaims that of this there can be no doubt. The question then arises: Did Christology emanate from Pneumatology (Christ's work flowed from the Spirit -- his ministry began only after Baptism where the dove landed on his shoulders and from the Heavens a voice spoke, "This is my son in whom I am well pleased.")? Did Pneumatology arise from Christology? Did the Holy Spirit flow from Christ as he worked his Ministry? (pp. 104-105)

In Christianity is it inconceivable that the three can be separated. God, Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit are inextricably linked. Christians believe in the Ten Commandments. There is a move to put the Ten Commandments in public schools in a move to provide a moral compass to impressionable children. Another set of principles that are central and unique to Christianity is the Sermon on the Mount from the Gospel of Matthew (p.112). Jesus reminded his followers that to be simple, kind, struggling, afflicted, honest and humble would merit the Kingdom of Heaven.

Christians, due to their belief that Christ was the Messiah, also have the advantage of physical proof for Christian living. During the Last Supper Christ was part of a transmogrification (p. 116). The bread came to represent his Body. The wine represented his Blood. Christ knew that his suffering would begin soon -- that his body would be broken, and his blood would be spilled. This also set the stage for Christian Living. As the apostles, other followers and converts and especially Paul wrote to his own disciples, that the ways of wickedness would result in punishment at Judgment Day. We were called to make sacrifices for the greater Glory of God. The apostles not only taught, they also became exemplars. All the disciples met very violent deaths filled with suffering.

The Holy Spirit flows from God. And Jesus also always reminded that our prayers would go to the Father to him. In a way, the Holy Spirit and Jesus were channels of God's power. In prayer, Christians often invoke the name of Mary (Jesus' mother) and saints. One must be reminded that these are intercessors and exemplars. But they do not rise to the levels of divinity of Christ and the Holy Spirit. In Christianity, the sacraments are once again physical and tangible reminders of Christian Life. Some scholars believe that sacraments are means by which Grace can be channeled to man.

Islam

The practitioners of Islam are Muslims. The world Muslim means "one who submits to the will of God, one who fears him and obeys His messengers." This means one God. Monotheism in Islam is not open to interpretation. In some societies such questions can have very dire consequences (p. 171). Even Muhammad by his own admission was only a Rasul -- a messenger of God. Muslims today consider Muhammad to be a prophet who channeled the wonderful edicts of God over a period of more than 30 years.

Monotheism in Islam can also be considered as quasi-reactionary. Prior to Muhammad proclaiming the message of Allah -- this message being a great unifier -- people in Arabia resorted to Pantheism. There were several Gods. They also believed in the supernatural ascribing both pleasantness and misfortune to the hands of jinns and demons. Indeed, Muhammad averred: "There is no God, but Allah." The Qur'an contains the eternal, immutable words of Allah.

The Qu'ran is derived into Surahs. These Surahs establish the Islamic doctrine. Surah 2 and 12 (p. 182) emphasize the monotheism of Islam -- that there is only one Allah. And that belief in Allah is paramount for every Muslim. Surah 15 (pp. 181-182) depicts the process of creation and paradise. Islam does not believe in Idol Worship. Pictures of Allah or the prophet are not allowed. This is to assure us that these great entities could not be captured in the tangibles of a photograph of a statue. Every Muslim is required to pray five times a day with his or her head pointing towards Mecca. Muslims are allowed to have a photograph of the Kabah (an enormous black stone purported to have fallen from Heaven) at Mecca

In addition to the monotheistic imperative and continual and incessant prayer, Muslims are also required to give alms to the needy; fast in atonement during the period of Ramadan; make a pilgrimage to Mecca once in their lifetime; and, be prepared for exertion in the name of Allah. Though the word jihad means exertion, it has been co-opted and bastardized to mean Holy War. Today, countless Muslims have given their lives in keeping with this last edict. This is the strongest proof that Muslims will not deviate in their devotion to the idea of One God.

Allah promises rewards in exchange for faith. Idolaters are condemned to be taken from Light into Darkness. The fires of hell are their just rewards. Almost every Surah begins with the enjoinder of the uniqueness and singular nature of God. The words in the Surahs almost defy the reader and worshipper to think anything but this. Surah 17 is similar to the Ten Commandments in Leviticus in the Bible. The Qur'an also makes references to Christians and Jewish. The followers of these religions are called People of the Book. Surah 75 (p.188) sums up Islamic doctrine. In the case of non-believers (75:34-35):

Well have you deserved this doom; well have you deserved it. Well have you deserved this doom; to well have you deserved it?

Islam provides for protection of children. It warns not to kill children if parents cannot provide for them. Laws are also very strict for adultery. As far as violence is concerned, the Qur'an does not make allowances to kill infidels, as is the often-repeated refrain heard these days. Allah strictly asks not to be the aggressors. But Muslims are allowed to defend themselves. But violence is not to be committed within the mosque precincts. Allah is also quick to forgive a contrite heart only if the transgression is committed in ignorance. Allah also reminds his followers that true devotion is obtained by continually praising his name -- God is greater -- All-hu Akbar.

The first essay highlighted the importance of attitudes in the study of religion. Gary Kessler spoke of the need to keep an open and honest mind in the study of other religions, in order to retain objectivity. Kessler also emphasized the need to critically evaluate facets of religion in order to avoid the pitfalls of personal biases, "abstractions, destructive intentions and obscure theories." Yearley's thesis provided a motivation to celebrate the new virtue of spiritual regret. Edwards clustered religions based on similarities and commonalities of philosophy. William Paden provided methods for comparison of religions and Wayne Proudfoot spoke about the advantages and disadvantages of reductionism.

Consider the reality of the religion today. Besides Hinduism, Christianity, Islam and Judaism remain the most espoused religions in the world. The science-fiction writer Isaac Asimov made some very salient points in an essay. In a sketch of the human condition he demonstrated how religion as it is pursued and perceived today can have negative consequences. The pogroms and the Holocaust decimated the Jews (Asimov's family were escapees from persecution in Russia). Christians helped in this capture because of the differences of opinion with regard to the Messianic prophecies. The practitioners of Islam distort the teachings of the Qur'an to an extent that every non-believer in Allah was an infidel and deserved death. Meanwhile, intra-religious conflicts are also rife. In Iraq, Saddam Hussein was responsible for the mass killing of members of the Shiite sects. Post 9-11, inflammatory rhetoric on both sides caused people to see Islam in a distorted light. Even among Christians, Ireland remains divided because Catholics and Protestants do not get along. Do we need religion, if it causes so much chaos and suffering among adherents and opponents? The simple answer, Yes. The notion of "fear of the Lord" causes most to be generally respectful and the consequences are strongly felt in communities in particular, and society as a whole. (Asimov, 1997)

The previous essay gave us a historical and philosophical purview of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Assuming that adherents of each religion were to undertake an objective study of the other two, it would have to be in a comprehensive manner. Kessler provides the outline for such a study. A comprehensive, objective study would, no doubt, remove conflicts between the two religions.

Historically, Jewish was the oldest religion though Christianity traces its origins along exactly the same lines. The Tannakh -- or the Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament are exactly the same. Talmudic scholars and rabbis have often interpreted certain key words and phrases differently. This produced a minimal divergence in thought. Historically, the main differences arise when Jesus Christ comes into the picture. The Jews remain adamant that Christ was not the Messiah, something that Christians cannot reconcile. Christians also blame Jews for the death of Christ. However, a student of the history of the times will note that this was the time that the Middle East was ruled by the iron hand of the rapidly expanding Roman Empire. This rule undermined the proper flourishing of Judaism and also created barriers to the spread of Christianity. This argument is not necessarily to blame a third party. It merely suggests that external, previously unconsidered factors are also responsible for the Judeo-Christian schism. While Islam is relatively new -- the religion began with Muhammad's visions and channeling of Allah's missive -- it generally followed a pantheistic religion where abeyances to supernatural was rife. Perhaps, this was the right time for Muhammad because it brought Islam closer to the Judeo-Christian thought. It also channeled a largely lost populace (interestingly, none of the early Islamic people were converts from Judaism and Christianity) into being monotheistic. While the imams today speak of infidels who await eternal damnation, the Qur'an is very tolerant of Christians and Jews. It not only recognizes them, but also calls them People of the Book. All three religions have some form of commandments or guidelines for societal behavior that remains relevant even today. None of them invoke violence or any other Sin.

Comparatively, if Rem Edward's clustering analysis were to be applied to the three religions in terms of belief in a super-being, a moral code, edicts of life and death, prayer, rituals, celebrations, internalization and philosophies (Table) there are no differences between Islam, Christianity and Judaism. They are at one end of a spectrum. The other end of this spectrum denotes mundane occupations and hobbies. We would also be hard pressed to identify true divergences between the religions in terms of sheer definitions. For instance, the picture of a Muslim as an Arab Bedouin is a misconception. Islam thrives in different countries. After 1500, unique cultural constructs arose in different parts of the world that espoused the same religion. Islam is taking root in North America and is the fastest growing religion in Africa. Religions can take forms of the culture in which they thrive. But that is a testament to the culture and not the religion. Christianity is generally seen as a Western Religion, though it really spread from the Middle East. Yet there are people all over the world that follow Christianity. In fact, the Eastern Orthodoxies of the Baltic and Balkan states have managed to hold on to tenets and ideals that transcend western cultural influences. The Vatican Council of the late 1950s allowed masses to be conducted in all languages.

All three religions emphasize the singularity of God. No other God's can be held before the true one. The basic definition therefore would be: "Belief in God." No differences there. Even from a substantive point-of-view -- all religions believe in the supernatural. Functionally, the three religions prescribe no deviation from: "Love of God and Love of Neighbor." Definitions based on moral codes are the same since the commandments are essentially the same. Cultural definitions, it bears repeating, are more about culture and religion.

A phenomenogical comparison of religion also indicates that there are no differences. Phenomenology involves the stripping the religion to its just sacred -- Sui generis. But any differences from outward influences are thus removed. And the three religions become even more similar. One sees similar trends with reductionism. Kessler also warns that defining religions in terms of sacred opens it to various broad interpretations. It is worth mentioning that how sacred a religion really is, is more a measure of a person's heart, mind and consequently his attitude. A religion by its mere existence, per se, does not make it sacred. The onus of sacredness is on the devotee than on the icon to whom the devotion is directed. St. Francis of Assisi, the first known stigmata (bearing the wounds of Christ) was enthralled in his devotion. The Virgin Mary has appeared mostly to innocent children. The whirling dervishes are also enraptured as they channel the grace of Allah. The Sufis aim to achieve ecstasy with their devotion to Allah.

If one considers the recent evolution of religions, one sees divergences between and within religions. The divergences are due to the struggle between cultures. Materialistically, western culture is at a point of its zenith just as other civilizations attained high points from ancient times to the middle ages. The Islamic scholar Kurshid Ahmad (pp. 213-219) stresses the need for preservation of religious beliefs while supporting the need for modernization. Cultural influences give rise to envy. These feelings turn to hatred and manifest in tendencies towards violence. Within all three religions, reformation-oriented and orthodox schools of thought are constantly at odds with each other. Most of these breaks in views are due to the need to be in synchrony with the times. Once again, any divergences between religions are seen due to cultural influences.

If practitioners of each religion were to consider other religions what spiritual regret would they find. Many have argued that the Jews continue to be persecuted because of envy for their riches -- as opposed to any specific philosophical reasons. One of the reasons that Jews inevitably manage to become leaders in communities besides becoming affluent stems from a rigid discipline and strict requirements of education. Education always ensures that one earns a decent living. A Christian or Muslim would spiritually regret their own religion for want of a precept that forces parents to educate children on penalty of Sin.

Muslim would, on the other hand, view the Western culture that has influenced Christian thought and bemoan the need for democracy. Conservative (orthodox) practitioners of Christianity and Judaism would see their own religions lacking in discipline when they see the mass prayer services at the mosques, Muslims feeling the need to pray five times a day and the discipline that is demanded of every Muslim in fasting for the forty days of Ramadan. These Christians and Judaism would wish for something that would salvage their religion from overt cultural influences.

Lee Yearley mentions two conditions that would trump spiritual regret or sympathy to another religion or a school of thought. He calls it the "theoretical or ethical web of beliefs." A student then needs to ask, exactly what practices of other religions (or even one's own) would violate these webs of belief. The contemporary essays in Kessler's book speaks of situations and dogma that are abhorrent and counter the tenets that Christianity, Judaism and Islam. All three religions preach love of God and Man, total devotion to a one true God and common sense social concerns. The pure, visceral hatred for Jews that caused the Holocaust, the ritual serial putting of women as second-class citizens under the purview of religion, treatment of slaves would go contrary to the web of beliefs. It is important to remember that none of these abhorrent conditions were ordained by God. They are more to a testament to the human condition that created them as religions evolved.

A last important point is imagination. A perfunctory perusal of the case for an active imagination would seem counterintuitive to the undertaking of a serious objective study. In the context that Kessler and Yearley mention it, it is critical to have this "imagination." Imagination simply involves putting oneself in the shoes of the practitioner of the other religion and acknowledging where that person is "coming from." This imagination can be from a historical, philosophical and cultural perspective. It would also help if this imagination was premised on the fact that, from the point-of-view of the above mentioned studies, there are no substantive differences between Christianity, Islam and Judaism.