American Foreign Policy 1890-1930: From Neutrality to Intervention

Washington's Warning and Early Isolationism

Early in American history, President George Washington advised Americans not to become embroiled in foreign conflicts. However, at the end of the 19th century, it became increasingly difficult for America to remain isolated from the issues affecting its neighbors abroad. The period from 1890 to 1930 was characterized by a far more expansionist American foreign policy than had been the case before. Although this policy was often defended by the notion that the U.S. was making the world safe for democracy, self-interest rather than idealism was usually the real motivating force.

The Spanish-American War and Latin American Expansion

A good early example of American intervention in Latin America can be found in the Spanish-American War of 1898, which eventually resulted in the U.S. acquiring territories in the western Pacific and Latin America. Spain's repression of the Cuban pro-independence movement, combined with the sinking of the USS Maine (sent to protect U.S. residents in the region), generated popular support for intervention. Many called the Spanish-American War the first example of how yellow journalism could fundamentally change the course of American foreign policy.

Yellow journalism played a decisive role in shaping public opinion. "From Cuba, [William Randolph] Hearst's star reporters wrote stories designed to tug at the heartstrings of Americans. Horrific tales described the situation in Cuba—female prisoners, executions, valiant rebels fighting, and starving women and children figured in many of the stories that filled the newspapers." Although Spain was indeed a colonial and repressive power, many of the stories generated by Hearst's media empire have been questioned by historians today. The U.S., even after Spain declared an armistice, authorized the use of force to expel Spain from Cuba. "The ensuing war was pathetically one-sided, since Spain had readied neither its army nor its navy for a distant war with the formidable power of the United States." The war ended with an easy U.S. victory and the Treaty of Paris expelled Spain from the region. The U.S. acquired Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, along with recognition as a new world power.

American Influence in Asia and the Pacific

The U.S. also began to exert greater influence over Asia when, in 1900, it became involved in quelling the Boxer Rebellion in China. The concern was to preserve the Open Door Policy, which demanded that China be kept open to free trade on an equal basis with all nations. The ostensible motive was commercial access, but the policy also asserted American influence in a region where European and Japanese powers were dominant. Thanks to its participation in the Boxer Rebellion, "the resulting indemnity that the Europeans and Japanese imposed upon the Qing dynasty to pay for the loss of life and property amounted to a crushing $333 million. The United States received $25 million of that amount, of which $11 million was given to American colleges to support Chinese students." The U.S. was also called upon to broker peace in the Russian-Japanese War of 1904, which testified to its newfound influence and power in the region and the U.S. conviction that a proactive foreign policy was necessary in Asia to serve its interests.

World War I: The Decisive Turn to Intervention

It was American entrance into World War I, however, that truly marked the beginnings of a new, expansionist policy for the U.S. Woodrow Wilson won re-election in 1916, promising to stay out of a conflict that seemed emblematic of ill-advised European colonialism and secret alliances. However, gradually the pressures in favor of intervention began to rise. "In May 1915, a German U-boat sank the British liner Lusitania, killing 1,198, including 129 Americans. This and other sinkings piled further pressure on Wilson." Finally, the Zimmermann Telegram, which supposedly offered Mexicans "the return of territories lost to the U.S. if they joined the war on Germany's side," helped generate support for war. Mexico rejected the terms of the telegram (which was deciphered by the British in an attempt to win U.S. support), but the public relations damage had been done and overcame Irish and German-American support for U.S. neutrality.

"On April 6, 1917, Congress voted to declare war on the Kaiser and his allies. Until then, America had done very well out of the war. Exports to Europe boomed and its financial institutions piled into markets previously dominated by Britain," bolstering the U.S. economy. The U.S. armies were fresh and well-supplied, in contrast to the depleted European forces on both sides. American intervention was a decisive moment in the conflict and resulted in a victory for the Allies. Because the war had not been fought on American soil, the American economy was far more resilient than those of either the other victors or the defeated powers. The U.S. therefore had a substantial role in negotiating the terms of peace—a role it had not enjoyed before, when a balance of power between European empires governed Europe. However, while the intervention had been justified on the grounds of defending freedom, the U.S. clearly had a self-interest in its intervention, given that a German victory would have threatened U.S. interests in Europe.