Apparent Time vs. Real Time in Sociolinguistic Change

Introduction: Rethinking Language Change

"The moral of the story is that if we think we observe a change in progress from A to B, we need to provide evidence not just of the existence of B, but also of the prior existence of A" (Britain, 2008:1).

This is how Britain summarizes his overall findings from an investigation into the origins of a conservative conversational variant in 19th-century New Zealand English. It turns out that the MOUTH diphthong he was examining was not as prevalent in actual usage as had often been assumed. Yet the changes that did not come about did not arise in isolation, which is why they were interpreted as movement away from what others would consider a standardized language base (Coupland, 2010). Instead, the case served as an example of why it is important to develop a fuller, more detailed, and explicit knowledge of both the structure of the dialect and the demographics of those thought to be driving language change (Fagyal et al., 2010).

Britain's work is significant not so much for its specific findings but because it functions as its own harbinger of change — one seeking to conceptualize a hybrid of sociolinguistic innovation and social change, made faster and more visible by modern technologies capable of operating in both apparent- and real-time settings. These range from television to computer-mediated communication (Coupland, 2010). Whether examining language change patterns longitudinally (real time in a different sense) or synchronically (apparent time), the limitations of both perspectives stem from their failure to focus sufficient attention on a third dimension of understanding — what might be called a "C" element in Britain's formulation, perhaps standing for connectivity. Globalization and the computerization of language study make it possible to observe and experience, through graphic representations and simulations, the true dynamics of change as it happens — whether the setting is synchronic or diachronic (Auer and Schmidt, 2009). Modern technological capabilities transform the "period effects" of the past into simulations that open an entirely different arena for studying language change (Coupland, 2010:76).

The dramatic changes that technology offers are only now beginning to be factored into this area of study. Still, to understand the new dynamics made possible by computer-mediated communication (Gao, 2008), it remains useful to examine the real-time and apparent-time approaches, as these frameworks continue to shape much of the existing research. This paper does so while also incorporating the technological possibilities that are reshaping the field, arguing that the future of language change research may no longer need to depend so heavily on the past.

The Apparent-Time Approach

For the most part, apparent-time assessments of language change grew out of the necessity of quantitative practicality. It was simply more pragmatic to explore language synchronically and then extrapolate from that single point in time to what might occur in later periods. If minor changes or major innovations could be identified and isolated, it became easier to predict which would persist into the future. Turell (2003) draws attention to this by noting the methodological simplicity of examining simultaneous age groups and then distinguishing which changes are connected to genuine language modification and which are associated with the normal gradations of physical and communicative maturity — the kind of language development found in all persons (Turell, 2003:5).

Kallel, examining the history of the periphrastic do in English, offers a clear illustration of this concern:

"Where a change is taking place, a certain variant will occur in the speech of children, though it is rare, or absent, in the speech of their parents. A variant in the parents' speech will occur in the speech of their children with greater frequency, and in the speech of their grandchildren with even greater frequency. In the community at large, successive generations will show incremental frequencies in the use of the innovative variant. The ultimate consequence of this will be the categorical use of that new variant and the elimination of older variants" (Kallel, 2002:163).

The age-gradation factor has become central to the apparent-time model, even though its components can be difficult to isolate (Gao, 2008:363). Distinguishing what occurs in each age-group snapshot becomes more problematic for several reasons relating to both theoretical assumptions and practical considerations. Apparent-time theories tend to presuppose that the underlying "S"-shaped pattern of adopting and accepting change is clear and consistent. Change in this understanding begins gradually — possibly testing and reverting to accepted norms — then accelerates until leveling off over time, graphically forming an S-curve (Matsuda, 2002; Fagyal et al., 2010:2). This "stability hypothesis" aligns with normative expectations across the lifespan, where young people are less bound by usage standards but gradually conform as they age (Lifespan, n.d.:4). Matsuda further connects the necessity of this slow, steady, and consistent progression to the apparent-time model — something theorists have argued is central to explaining why waves of usage occur across generations or study cohorts. Matsuda also uses this characteristic to draw distinctions regarding whether the linguistic context is a dependent or independent variable of age: if the two are related, then the changes are part of age grading rather than fundamental linguistic innovation (Matsuda, 2002).

Weaknesses of the Apparent-Time Model

A key weakness of the apparent-time perspective is that time itself, and even the underlying motivations for social change, are effectively held in stasis (Fagyal et al., 2010:3). Coupland articulates the problem this way:

"The time that matters most for the apparent time method is the end of the critical period for language acquisition, when people's vernacular speech norms are, it is argued, consolidated, allowing young adult speech patterns across a range of familiar social categories such as gender and class to stand for their cohort types. There is no interest in how any particular historical configuration, in a socio-cultural sense, might shape the forms or functions of the speech varieties or systems in question" (2010:56).

Other studies have explored these weaknesses in greater detail (Auer and Schmidt, 2009). The source from which individual groups are drawn, regional variations, and whether language changes are introduced by "loners" or "in-betweeners" — as Fagyal et al. (2010) have suggested — each becomes more relevant in assessing whether the apparent-time picture is as accurate as assumed. This concern extends Britain's (2003) earlier worry about period effects. "Idiolectal," or unexpected and seemingly out-of-place changes that do not fit the prevailing pattern, would under this framework be set aside for fear of introducing too many analytical complications, thereby obscuring what may have actually occurred (Turell, 2003:3).

Studies on social networking and language behavior in artificially constructed social environments — such as online gaming sessions — later build upon these concerns, but in ways that value and explore what it means when unusual changes begin to take hold. It should also be recognized that the apparent-time approach may not make adequate distinctions between levels of change occurring at the individual versus community level. Traditional studies focused on Martha's Vineyard, for example, helped establish the critical role of youth and language acquisition in initiating innovations; but later extensions have demonstrated that scientific methods, discourse analytics, and psychosocial factors are equally critical in understanding when change actually consolidates (Schilling-Estes, n.d.). These issues are further complicated as technology — often assumed to be a young person's domain — is increasingly embraced by older audiences who are adopting significant new language and communication patterns with surprising readiness, as discussed below.