China's Air Pollution: Causes, Effects, and Solutions

Introduction and Research Overview

The purpose of this project is to determine the causes of, damages from, and possible solutions to China's air pollution problem. Due to China's global importance—not only as an economic power but also as one of the world's worst polluters—there are many studies regarding various aspects of China's air pollution. There is some disagreement about statistics; however, this appears to be the result of different analytical standards. The results of all the studies nevertheless paint a picture of a nation with a dramatic air pollution problem that has made some strides toward sustainability but must do much more to safeguard its people, its economy, and the world.

The research methods used for this paper are quantitative and qualitative studies. The quantitative research consists of statistical analysis of the sources, effects, and possible solutions to China's air pollution. The qualitative research is a multidisciplinary examination of the same areas. The studies analyzed include: The China Project (Ho & Nielsen, 2007); the 2010 Global Burden of Disease Study conducted by the World Health Organization, the World Bank, and the Chinese Academy of Environmental Planning (Chen, Wang, Ma, & Zhang, December 14, 2013); a 2010 study by the Chinese Academy of Environmental Planning (Wang, Lei, Yang, & Yan, 2012); the 2007 Bali Climate Change Talks (Muldavin, 2007); a 2011 study of air pollution health impacts on the Chinese economy (Matus, et al., February 2012); a 2014 study of the impact of winter heating on China's air pollution (Xiao, Ma, Li, & Liu, 2015); and a 2014 analysis of polluted haze afflicting China (Li & Zhang, 2014). Together, these studies, analyses, and expert opinions provide a comprehensive picture of China's air pollution.

China's prominence as a major global power has resulted in numerous studies about the causes, effects, and solutions to the nation's air pollution. Perhaps the most notable is the China Project, an ongoing research venture shared by Harvard University's Center for the Environment, the Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, several other Harvard departments, Chinese universities such as Beihang, Hong Kong Polytechnic, Peking, and Tsinghua, and some of China's governmental leaders (Ho & Nielsen, 2007, p. x). Participants come from fields as diverse as the natural, applied, and health sciences, economics, law, and public policy (Ho & Nielsen, 2007, p. ix). The China Project analyzed outdoor and indoor pollution separately.

Causes of China's Air Pollution

The China Project found that in 2002, China's energy was generated 56% by coal, 20% by petroleum, 15% by biomass fuels, and 10% from hydropower and nuclear power (Ho & Nielsen, 2007, p. 12). Within five years, coal production had doubled to more than one billion tons per year, and two new coal-fueled power stations were starting up every week (Ho & Nielsen, 2007, p. 210).

Outdoor pollution is the most commonly considered type of air pollution. In China, given that coal is the largest contributor to outdoor pollution by far, the China Project analyzed which sectors used the most coal. The study found that the electricity industry burns the most coal and is therefore the biggest source of outdoor air pollution emissions. Industrial production of cement ranked second, followed by transportation and chemicals (Ho & Nielsen, 2007, pp. 17, 26). Although many industries contribute to outdoor air pollution, those four industries contributed the most in terms of coal burning. That outdoor air pollution consists of greenhouse gases, increased ozone, particulate matter that easily embeds in the lungs (Matus, et al., February 2012), and a carcinogenic haze chiefly composed of industrial and vehicle emissions (Li & Zhang, 2014; Xu, Chen, & Ye, December 21, 2013).

China also suffers from serious indoor air pollution. Many of China's rural households depend on solid fuel for cooking and heating (Xiao, Ma, Li, & Liu, 2015), using crop wastes for 80% of energy and coal for 13% of energy (Ho & Nielsen, 2007, p. 28). China's indoor air pollution is also quite deadly, accounting for the premature deaths of many rural residents.

Damaging Effects of Air Pollution

China's air pollution produces a number of damaging effects, several of which overlap. First, premature deaths are an obvious consequence of air pollution (Chen, Wang, Ma, & Zhang, December 14, 2013): taken together, outdoor and indoor pollution in China is estimated to cause nearly 400,000 premature deaths annually (Ho & Nielsen, 2007, p. 30).

Second, China's air pollution significantly increases health costs. Measuring these costs in terms of "willingness-to-pay to avoid death or disabling disease," China's air pollution costs approximately 370,000 yuan per life (Ho & Nielsen, 2007, p. 60), or $59,645.67 USD per life (X-Rates, 2015). Third, air pollution noticeably damages China's Gross Domestic Product: according to the Worldwatch Institute, air pollution costs the Chinese economy $63 billion USD, or 3% of China's GDP (Worldwatch Institute, 2015).

Fourth, greenhouse gas emissions and secondary pollution such as acid rain, haze, and increased ozone damage China's crops. A 2006 study estimates that by 2050, China's national crop yield will be reduced by 37% due to air pollution (Ho & Nielsen, 2007, pp. 30–38). Fifth, as China's industrialization has increased, its greenhouse gas emissions have risen until China contributes approximately one-fifth of the world's total greenhouse gas emissions, significantly contributing to global climate change and making China one of the world's greatest polluters (Ho & Nielsen, 2007, pp. 30–38).

Conclusion

The research methods used for this paper are quantitative and qualitative studies of statistics and multidisciplinary analyses of China's air pollution problem. China's prominence as a major global power has resulted in numerous studies about the causes, effects, and solutions to the nation's air pollution. China's energy is chiefly generated 56% by coal, 20% by petroleum, 15% by biomass fuels, and 10% from hydropower and nuclear power. The electricity industry burns the most coal—the greatest pollutant—and is therefore the biggest source of outdoor air pollution emissions. Industrial production of cement ranked second, followed by transportation and chemicals. That outdoor air pollution consists of greenhouse gases, increased ozone, particulate matter that easily embeds in the lungs, and a carcinogenic haze chiefly made up of industrial and vehicle emissions. China also suffers from indoor air pollution, which accounts for a significant number of premature deaths. Many of China's rural households depend on solid fuel for cooking and heating, using crop wastes for 80% of energy and coal for 13% of energy, creating deadly indoor air quality conditions.

China's air pollution produces a number of damaging effects, several of which overlap, including: approximately 400,000 premature deaths annually; increased health costs, measured in terms of "willingness-to-pay to avoid death or disabling disease" and totaling approximately 370,000 yuan or $59,645.67 USD per life; an estimated 3% reduction in China's Gross Domestic Product; greenhouse gas emissions and secondary pollution such as acid rain, haze, and increased ozone that damage China's crops, with a projected 37% reduction in national crop yields by 2050; and a contribution of approximately one-fifth of the world's greenhouse gas emissions, significantly accelerating global climate change and establishing China as one of the world's greatest polluters.

Solutions can be difficult to implement due to the reluctance of political leaders who claim that protecting the environment harms employment and the economy. However, environmental experts assert that employment, public health, and the economy all depend on protecting the environment. Consequently, a number of solutions are being pursued or at least proposed. Green taxes on output and fuel in proportion to the damages they cause to the environment, health, and the economy can reduce pollution and its harmful effects while generating some economic growth through tax revenues. The nation should also invest in technologies that create and enhance sustainable fuel sources. China has made progress toward this goal through its end-of-the-pipe approach and its revised National Ambient Air Quality Standards. Another solution involves encouraging and rewarding the use of sustainable fuels through tax reductions, rebates, and grants.

Finally, on a larger scale, the nation must reach international agreements to reduce air pollution and adhere to those commitments. The United States and China reached a historic agreement in November 2014 to limit greenhouse gas emissions: though China did not commit to a specific reduction percentage, it pledged to cap its emissions by 2030 and to increase the use of non-fossil fuels. The agreement is significant for both the U.S. and China, as well as for all countries that will contribute to the final global treaty on climate change.

Works Cited

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Xu, P., Chen, Y., & Ye, X. (December 21, 2013). Haze, air pollution, and health in China. The Lancet, 382.9910, 2067.