Utopian and Practical Elements in the Civil Rights Movement

Introduction: Two Visions of Change

The Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s is a prime example of a movement containing both utopian and practical elements. To the outside observer, the passive resistance of the Montgomery Bus Boycotts and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.'s rousing "I Have a Dream" speech seems hopeful and utopian. In contrast, the gritty determination of Malcolm X and the Black Muslims, who sought equal rights but not integration, seems the more practical approach. However, both extremes of the Civil Rights Movement contained both practical and utopian elements. The outcome of the movement was to accomplish most of the practical goals of both extremes, and even some of the ideals. However, almost 40 years after the assassinations of both Dr. King and Malcolm X, the remnants of both extremes — as well as the rest of Americans — are still trying to decide which version of utopia to support.

Most Americans have at least a passing familiarity with the civil disobedience espoused by Dr. King and those working with him in the Civil Rights Movement. People are less familiar with the more radical elements of the struggle for civil rights. Furthermore, it is impossible to understand the radical ideology espoused by Malcolm X and his peers without looking at the historical context of Black radical ideology.

Malcolm X and Black Radical Ideology

Although the self-determination debates had begun among Black leaders in the early 20th century, they exploded in the 1960s. According to some, struggles over colonialism in the third world were as much of a catalyst for the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s as events in American history ("Study Guide"). Whatever the catalyst, Malcolm X reached his height of power during this decade. As the leader of the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X sought an end to the Eurocentrism that he believed was responsible for the oppression of people of color, from the era of slavery through his own time. He was not seeking equality; he sought nothing less than the downfall of America as a respected nation. In his own words, Malcolm X believed that his generation would see:

"How the enslavement of millions of Black people in this country is now bringing white America to her hour of judgment, to her downfall as a respected nation. And even those Americans who are blinded by childlike patriotism can see that it is only a matter of time before white America too will be utterly destroyed by her own sins, and all traces of her former glory will be removed from this planet forever" (Goodman, 121–122).

Malcolm X clearly anticipated a clash — probably violent — between Black people and white Americans. In fact, he viewed the civil rights struggle in the United States as a small part of a global struggle of the oppressed against the oppressors.

The utopia sought by radical Black ideologists was not an America where Black people had the same rights as whites, but rather no America at all. Furthermore, to Malcolm X during his time as leader of the Nation of Islam, all white men were enemies without exception. The white man was the common oppressor, exploiter, and discriminator against Black people (Malcolm X Speaks, 4). While Malcolm X believed that violence might be a necessary part of the struggle for civil rights, his real message was political: he believed that "the political philosophy of Black nationalism means that the Black man should control the politics and the politicians in his own community" (Malcolm X Speaks, 38). He stressed that the choice available to Black Americans was "the ballot or the bullet" (Malcolm X Speaks, 41).

The Utopian and Practical Elements of the Radical Movement

Although gritty, those views were as utopian as the ideas of passive resistance. It was unrealistic for radical Black ideologists to believe that the majority of Black Americans were in a position to resort to violence if they were not given immediate factual equality. The reality was that Black Americans — no matter how dissatisfied with the political climate of the 1960s — had families to support, children to protect, and spouses, parents, and siblings to consider. The Black radicals wanted Black people to put aside those personal concerns for more global ideas. However, for a father looking at his children, few things are more important than being alive to see those children grow. A widespread revolt by Black Americans simply was not practical.

Members of the Nation of Islam and other Black radicals also had a practical approach to civil rights. Espousing violence to attain civil rights contained an implicit acknowledgment that Black people seeking their civil rights would be subjected to a severe threat of violence. Furthermore, Malcolm X targeted Black Americans in the lower classes, recognizing that those in the middle class would not be as receptive to his message. While King and other leaders who espoused civil disobedience targeted Black Americans with middle-class values, the Black radicals targeted Black men in prison. They acknowledged the reality that years of oppression combined with economic disadvantage had debilitating effects on culture and made Black Americans more likely to be convicted of crimes.

The practical elements of the Black radical movement came to light when inner-city Black Americans rose up in violence during ghetto riots, beginning with the Watts riots. In their boldly aggressive display of mass Black violence, the Watts riots demonstrated to white America that years of oppression had left the Black community simmering with resentment. The riots showed that not all Black Americans were like those depicted on television, submitting passively as police turned fire hoses and dogs on them simply for attempting to exercise their civil rights. However, the Watts riots also highlighted that violence on its own was not going to be enough to end oppression.