This paper examines the challenges and opportunities that racial and ethnic diversity presents in adult arts education classrooms. Drawing on Brookfield's critical self-reflection model, Witkin's theory of psychological differentiation, and Knowles' andragogy framework, the paper establishes two core learning objectives: understanding how cultural identity shapes cognitive development and learning styles, and identifying strategies for facilitating productive classroom discussions among diverse adult learners. The paper also addresses the specific demands of online art education, exploring how electronic portfolio systems and perspective-taking techniques can foster collaborative knowledge creation. Theoretical insights are grounded in empirical research on cross-cultural cognition, group creativity, and web-based peer assessment.
The paper exemplifies theoretical triangulation: it introduces a dominant framework (Brookfield's critical self-reflection), tests its limits against cross-cultural evidence (Witkin, Berry, Lovano-Kerr), and then reconciles the tension by invoking Knowles' andragogy. This layering of frameworks strengthens the argument by showing awareness of competing perspectives rather than relying on a single authority.
The paper opens with a problem statement and two stated learning objectives. The first body section surveys the theoretical and empirical literature on culture, cognition, and adult learning. The second section translates theory into classroom practice through strategies for managing diversity. The third body section pivots from risk mitigation to opportunity exploitation, culminating in an empirical study on online portfolios. A brief summary and key-points section consolidates both learning objectives before the reference list.
As the American population becomes increasingly diverse, so does classroom diversity (Cooper, 2012). By the end of the current decade, a White majority will no longer exist among the 18-and-under age group. This rapid progression toward plurality has already impacted primary schools, and the trend is beginning to affect adult education classrooms as well. If educators simply ignore this trend, not only will the academic success of students be harmed, but so will the professional skills of educators themselves. The solution, according to Brookfield (1995), is not the adoption of an innocent or naive attitude toward the diverse needs and abilities of racially and ethnically diverse students, but rather to engage in a process of critical self-reflection. Such a process would help educators uncover their own hidden motives and intentions, thereby minimizing the risk of becoming frustrated and unsuccessful when confronted with the challenges posed by a diverse classroom. As an arts educator of adult students, the first learning objective is to better understand these challenges and the recommended strategies for achieving academic success.
Although increasing diversity can be a source of problems in an educational setting (Davis, 1993, p. 40), it can also enhance the learning experience for all involved (Brookfield & Preskill, 1999, pp. 127–150). Essential to this process is respect for individual and cultural identities, in addition to what Brookfield and Preskill (1999) termed "dispositions" essential to democratic discussions. These dispositions include humility, deliberation, autonomy, and a willingness to engage fully. The expected benefits include co-creation of knowledge, development of collaborative skills, increased empathy, greater tolerance for ambiguity, and an increased chance for transformative experiences. Accordingly, the second learning objective is to understand how classroom discussions and collaborative learning can be successfully integrated into an arts education program for racially and ethnically diverse adult learners. Both learning objectives will be considered in light of the special challenges associated with an online art education course for adult learners.
"…arts are forms of…'symbolic and expressive [knowledge] systems' that can be understood as cognitive processes" (Engel, 1977, as cited by Lovano-Kerr, 1983, p. 78). Cognition is the selective processing of sensory information in such a way that it leads to knowledge creation. The tasks involved include thinking, reasoning, memory creation and management, and imagery; therefore, cognition can be characterized as the "…process of knowing" (Stein, 1966, as cited by Lovano-Kerr, 1983, p. 77). Since cultural identity is the product of cognition, the processes involved in "knowing" art would likely be influenced by racial identity, ethnicity, and economic status. Lovano-Kerr (1983) reviewed research findings concerning the cross-cultural predictive value of Piaget's stages of development and found substantial support for culture-dependent development and acquisition of sensorimotor, concrete operational, and formal operational stages. One study published by Dasen in 1974 revealed that Australian Aboriginal children used circles to denote direction, failed to understand numbers or measurement, but exceeded the abilities of Western children in understanding length. Additionally, researchers found that the concrete operational stage is not attained by all adults from non-Western cultures. Culture therefore has a sometimes dramatic and always important impact on developmental cognitive outcomes.
Lovano-Kerr (1983) discussed the problems encountered when Piaget's theory was challenged by non-Western cultures and offered a better theoretical foundation in the form of Witkin's theory of psychological differentiation. In contrast to Piaget's step-wise theory of development, psychological differentiation holds that development occurs along a continuum of increasing differentiation while retaining cognitive, psychological, and social patterns of behavior. The central theme of Witkin's theory is cognitive style, of which there are two primary types: (1) externally oriented and (2) internally oriented. For example, American society tends to foster an attitude of self-sufficiency and self-motivation, consistent with an internally oriented cognitive style — what Witkin called a "field-independent" mode of functioning. In contrast, a child raised in a conformist society would tend to be externally oriented, or field-dependent.
The validity of Witkin's theory of psychological differentiation was supported by findings from a large study that examined the visual discrimination and spatial skills of eight different cultures. The cultures were stratified by degree of Westernization, with the baseline representing societies almost completely dependent on hunting for survival (Berry, 1971). Increasing Westernization was found to correlate with reduced visual discrimination and spatial skills, and this was reflected in the arts and crafts industry: the most "primitive" culture by Western standards tended to have the most highly developed arts and crafts tradition. In addition, hunting societies tended to emphasize self-reliance, independence, and self-determination, placing them within Witkin's field-independent mode of functioning.
The findings of Berry (1971) reveal that Witkin's theory of psychological differentiation can be adapted to different cultures, thereby providing a theoretical framework for understanding the educational needs of adults in a culture-specific manner. However, the prevailing pattern has been to impose Western adult education approaches upon non-Western cultures (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). The reading, writing, and arithmetic focus of a Western education system — oriented toward employment needs — often does not align with the educational goals of other cultures. For example, Native American adults tend to be more concerned with preserving their culture, honoring traditional values, and reinterpreting past experiences. In China, adult learning within Confucianism is grounded in the pursuit of spiritual development. The goal of spiritual development is also important in India, although skill development still permeates that culture as a remnant of its colonial history. A similar spiritual orientation is advocated within Islam, yet additional adult learning goals can include communal obligation and the sharing of knowledge. An educator who simply ignores these important cultural differences is likely to encounter frustration and high student attrition rates.
Western adult education is, however, surprisingly similar to non-Western pedagogy in certain respects. Holmes and Abington-Cooper (2000) note that Knowles' influential andragogy model for adult learning emphasizes helping adults reach their full potential — emotionally, psychologically, and intellectually — by becoming self-directed learners. In 1973, Knowles distinguished adult learners from children by assuming adults will (1) be self-directed, (2) draw on a substantial experiential knowledge base, (3) be focused on social role needs, and (4) be oriented toward the immediate application of newly gained knowledge. Without Holmes and Abington-Cooper's (2000) article in the Journal of Technology Studies, a novice might perceive Knowles' andragogy model as essentially non-Western in orientation. A culturally diverse adult education class would therefore encounter fewer problems regarding educational goals if it were grounded in the andragogy model. Holmes and Abington-Cooper (2000) concluded that no agreement exists in the Western literature on precisely what an adult learner is, whereas the definition of an adult learner in India or China tends to be more clearly articulated. When faced with an ethnically diverse class of adults, educators can take comfort in the knowledge that students who identify with a non-Western culture likely have a strong sense of what they want to learn and why.
Berry, J. W. (1971). Ecological and cultural factors in spatial perceptual development. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 3(4), 324–336.
Brookfield, S. D. (1995). Becoming a critically reflective teacher. Jossey-Bass.
Brookfield, S. D. (2012). Teaching for critical thinking: Tools and techniques for helping students question their assumptions (1st ed.). Jossey-Bass.
Brookfield, S. D. (2013). Powerful techniques for teaching adults. Jossey-Bass.
Brookfield, S. D., & Preskill, S. (1999). Discussion as a way of teaching: Tools and techniques for democratic classrooms. Jossey-Bass.
Cooper, M. (2012, December 13). Census officials, citing increasing diversity, say U.S. will be a 'plurality nation.' New York Times, A20.
Davis, B. G. (1993). Tools for teaching. Jossey-Bass.
Hoever, I. J., van Knippenberg, D., van Ginkel, W. P., & Barkema, H. G. (2012). Fostering team creativity: Perspective taking as key to unlocking diversity's potential. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97(5), 982–996.
Holmes, G., & Abington-Cooper, M. (2000). Pedagogy vs. andragogy: A false dichotomy? Journal of Technology Studies, 26(2), 50–55.
Lin, K.-C., Yang, S.-H., Hung, J. C., & Wang, D.-M. (2006). Web-based appreciation and peer-assessment for visual-art education. International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 4(4), 5–14.
Lovano-Kerr, J. (1983). Cross-cultural perspectives on cognition and art: Implications for research. Journal of Multicultural and Cross-Cultural Research in Art Education, 1(1), 77–87.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). Jossey-Bass.
Always verify citation format against your institution’s current style guide requirements.