The Crusades: Causes, Campaigns, and Global Consequences

Introduction

The Crusades were a series of historical events of extreme importance in the history of both Eastern and Western cultures. The motivations and reasons for the Crusades have been the subject of much contention and debate. Views include the opinion that the Crusades were essentially a power struggle reflecting the need of the Papacy to extend its political influence. While the Crusades are conventionally seen to have had a mainly religious impetus, historical research also reveals other aspects and dimensions that emphasize their complexity. Just as debatable and complex are the consequences and impact that the Crusades had on the world. These include negative aspects such as the subjugation and domination of other cultures, as well as positive aspects such as the broadening of cultural contact. There is no doubt, however, that the various Crusades had a profound effect on the social, cultural, and political development of the world and were possibly the precursor to the era of European expansionism and eventual colonization.

The Crusades are often understood in conventional terms to have been a "fulfillment of a solemn vow, to deliver the Holy Places from Mohammedan tyranny" (Crusades, New Advent). From a contemporary point of view, however, the Crusades are frequently debated and seen from different perspectives. For example, they are also described as "war-pilgrimages proclaimed by the Popes on Christ's behalf and waged for the recovery of Christian territory or people, or in their defense" (Riley-Smith, 2000, p. 20).

The reasons and the underlying historical facets are complex, and the historical significance of the various Crusades has had a profound effect on the modern world. The context in which the Crusades were based was essentially religious in nature. This can be seen in the fact that the very word "Crusade" refers to a cross made of cloth, which was displayed on the apparel of those taking part. (Riley-Smith, 2000, p. 20) Therefore, the established rationale and motivation behind the Crusades was seemingly purely religious. As a consequence, the meaning of "crusade" has since the Middle Ages become a term referring to all wars "undertaken in pursuance of a vow, and directed against infidels, i.e. against Mohammedans, pagans, heretics, or those under the ban of excommunication" (Crusades, New Advent).

The purpose of this study is to provide first a general overview of the Crusades, and then a discussion of the reasons that initiated and motivated these historical events. This analysis leads to an exposition of the ways in which the Crusades affected the world and, to a certain extent, shaped contemporary political realities. One of the aspects examined is the view that the Crusades can also be seen as a form of domination by the ideals of Christian theology and the subjugation of other peoples' views and religions — an effect that still resonates today.

Motivations and Causative Factors for the Crusades

The first Crusade began in 1095, and the various Crusades continued until "the fall of the last order-state, Hospitaller Malta, to Napoleon in 1798" (Riley-Smith, 2000, p. 20). The areas covered include Palestine and the eastern Mediterranean region as well as "North Africa, Spain, the Baltic shores, Hungary, the Balkans, and even Western Europe" (Riley-Smith, 2000, p. 20). Furthermore, the Muslims were not the only enemies of the Crusaders, who also fought against Pagan Wends, Baits and Lithuanians, Shamanist Mongols, Orthodox Russians and Greeks, and Cathar and Hussite heretics. Crusades were also undertaken against Catholics who opposed the papacy (Riley-Smith, 2000, p. 20).

The Crusades are usually divided into eight major campaigns:

1. The First Crusade, 1095–1101; 2. The Second Crusade, headed by Louis VII, 1145–47; 3. The Third Crusade, conducted by Philip Augustus and Richard Coeur-de-Lion, 1188–92; 4. The Fourth Crusade, during which Constantinople was taken, 1204; 5. The Fifth Crusade, which included the conquest of Damietta, 1217; 6. The Sixth Crusade, in which Frederick II took part (1228–29), along with Thibaud de Champagne and Richard of Cornwall (1239); 7. The Seventh Crusade, led by St. Louis, 1249–52; 8. The Eighth Crusade, also under St. Louis, 1270.

As noted, one of the central motivational aspects of these Crusades was religious belief and ideology. The Crusades were conducted against the perceived Muslim "enemies" of the Christian world. However, it is equally true that they were fought against many others who were perceived as being opposed to the power and doctrines of Christian Rome — even Catholic dissenters were targets. Therefore, the motivation for the Crusades can also be understood in the context of political power.

There are a number of other complex reasons and causes. Many relate to religious concerns: the Crusades were instigated by the Catholic Church and were certainly aligned with the power of the Pope and the extension of Papal influence in the world. From a more holistic perspective, the Crusades can also be interpreted as the beginning of Western imperialism and possibly the start of later colonial incursions. This is underlined by various scholarly views: "Thus the Crusades can be seen as a part in the chapter in Papal and religious history. In addition, the Crusades opened the first chapter in the history of Western imperialism" (McBall et al., 1982, p. 447).

In more extensive political and geographical terms, the real reasons for the Crusades lie in the larger development of Western Europe in the Middle Ages. This development was closely connected to the emergent states in the Middle East and particularly to the situation regarding the occupation of Spain. After the death of Muhammad, Islamic armies from Arabic countries moved to dominate all of the Middle East, North Africa, and most of Spain. The Seljuk Turks conquered large areas of the Middle East, including Palestine and Jerusalem, and also conquered part of the Byzantine Empire (Corrick, 1995, p. 67). These events prepared the ground for and led to the First Crusade in a geopolitical sense.

One of the central reasons given for the Crusades — and a direct cause of the First Crusade — was the difficulty that Christian pilgrims experienced on journeys to the Middle East, and particularly to Jerusalem. There were also personal motivations related to the concept of "holy war" and the spiritual benefits that crusaders could receive for taking part:

"While holy war had had a long history, the idea of penitential war was unprecedented in Christian thought. It meant that a crusade was for the crusader only secondarily about service in arms to God or benefiting the Church or Christianity; it was primarily about benefiting himself. He was engaged in an act of self-sanctification." (Riley-Smith, 2000, p. 20)

Another aspect that must be taken into account is the social and cultural milieu at the time of the First Crusade. The Middle Ages were a period when violence as a means towards various ends was not viewed with the judgmental attitude prevalent today. According to The Oxford History of the Crusades:

"Violence was everywhere, impinging on many aspects of daily life. Legal disputes, for instance, were often resolved by means of trial by battle or by recourse to painful and perilous ordeals. Around the time of the First Crusade it was becoming increasingly common for convicted felons to suffer death or mutilation, a departure from the traditional emphasis on compensating the victims or their families. Brutality was so common it could be ritualistic." (Bull, 1999, pp. 16–17)

The medieval Church was also not exempt from the use of violent means. As Bull (1999) states, "Historians used to believe that the Church had been pacifist in the early Christian centuries, but had then become contaminated by the values of its host societies in a process which culminated during the period when crusading was at its height" — however, "The crucial element in the medieval world's relationship with violence was choice" (Bull, 1999, pp. 16–17).

The Oxford History of the Crusades also emphasizes an important methodological point: modern perceptions, prejudices, and stereotypes must be carefully considered before being applied to any interpretation of the Crusades. "It should be noted that the response of western Europeans to the First Crusade did not depend on a developed hatred of Islam and all things Muslim... Popular understanding of the crusades nowadays tends to think in terms of a great contest between faiths fuelled by religious fanaticism. This perception is bound up with modern sensibilities about religious discrimination, and... it is a perspective which, at least as far as the First Crusade is concerned, needs to be rejected." (Bull, 1999, pp. 16–17)

Conclusion

There are many different historical, sociological, and political views of the Crusades and their impact on the world. From one perspective the Crusades are seen as a power-driven and imperialistic attempt to take over other regions under the guise of religion. Other studies, however, point out that this is a simplistic view that does not account for the complex religious, cultural, economic, political, and geographic realities of the time.

The Crusades are often interpreted in a contemporary context in a negative sense as forming part of the ideology of "holy war" — a concept with increasingly negative connotations today. The term is often taken to refer to the justification of violence beneath a veneer of spiritual and religious goals. From this perspective, the Crusades are seen not as a justified religious search for spiritual unity, but as a self-righteous attempt to obtain power and land under the guise of religion. Many scholars support this view by citing records and documents that clearly show the often cruel and unjust actions of the Crusaders: "The crusading Christians, while at times motivated by deep religious conviction, were often opportunistic. They were commonly illiterate. They at times committed incredible acts of cruelty" (Renick, 2005, p. 11). One particularly graphic example is documented in accounts of the siege of Antioch, where crusaders reportedly used the severed heads of slain Turks as projectiles and placed approximately three hundred heads on stakes in front of the city to demoralize its defenders before breaking through and slaughtering the inhabitants.

However, there are opposing views, and many historians argue that accusations of cruelty and barbarism by the Crusaders are mythical and unjustified. They note, for example, that there is considerable doubt about the reported numbers of Muslims killed in Jerusalem (Riley-Smith, 2000, p. 20). A central critique in many studies concerns the legitimization of violence by the Roman Church — an attitude that only began to change in the late sixteenth century: "Only in the sixteenth century did the nearly universal conviction that the use of violence depended on Christ's direct or indirect authority begin to be undermined" (Riley-Smith, 2000, p. 20).

Notwithstanding the various viewpoints and critiques, there is little doubt that the Crusades had a profound and far-reaching impact on the world. They helped shape the modern world by influencing trade, exploration, the structure of European society, the authority of the Church, and the long-standing cultural and political distinctions between East and West — distinctions whose significance continues to be debated to this day.

References

Bull, M. (1999). Origins. In J. Riley-Smith (Ed.), The Oxford History of the Crusades (pp. 15–34). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Corrick, J. (1995). The Late Middle Ages. San Diego: Lucent Books.

Crusades. New Advent. Retrieved July 26, 2006, from http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04543c.htm

Haas, L. (2001). The Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople. The Historian, 63(4), 881.

Housley, N. (1992). From Lyons to Alcazar. New York: Oxford University Press.

McBall, E., et al. (1982). World Civilizations. New York: W. W. Norton and Company.

Noss, D. (1984). Man's Religions. New York: Macmillan.

Renick, T. M. (2005, June 14). Crusades revisited. The Christian Century, 122, 11.

Riley-Smith, J. (Ed.). (1999). The Oxford History of the Crusades. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Riley-Smith, J. (2000, March). Rethinking the Crusades. First Things: A Monthly Journal of Religion and Public Life, 20.