Cybercrimes and the Growing Role of Technology in Society

Introduction

Today, some of the most serious crimes were not even illegal a few years ago because they involve computer-based technologies that did not exist. The situation at present, however, is characterized by the proliferation of a bewildering array of computer-based technologies in virtually every aspect of modern human life. Moreover, current trends indicate that this ubiquity will continue to increase well into the foreseeable future. Against this backdrop, it is not surprising that nefarious actors are also exploiting these trends by engaging in various cybercriminal activities that defy easy detection and prevention.

The purpose of this paper is to provide a review of the relevant literature concerning cybercrimes and the increased use of technology in modern society to demonstrate that these types of crimes will continue to increase in frequency, scope, and severity unless and until substantive actions are taken at the international level to combat them. Following this review, a summary of the research and important findings concerning the current state of knowledge about cybercrimes and the increased use of technology in society are presented in the conclusion.

The Digital Landscape and Cybercrime Opportunities

The world has become an increasingly interconnected place where computers facilitate global communications in ways that were unimaginable just a few years ago (Sarre, Lau & Chang, 2018). Indeed, the emergence of the so-called "Internet of Things" has made it possible for cybercriminals to gain access to consumers' homes and even their kitchen appliances. In this regard, Stalans and Finn (2018) report that "the permeating presence of information technology and cyberspace in the connection of things such as cars, phones, home security, and home temperature controls and its role as critical infrastructure for societal institutions highlights the potential serious harmful effects of cybercrime" (p. 501).

Further, a veritable cornucopia of Internet-enabled digital devices has transformed the manner in which people socialize, recreate, shop, keep informed about important events in their lives, earn a living, and receive an education (Bossler & Berenblum, 2019). In addition, governments and businesses of all sizes and types have applied computer-based applications to many aspects of their operations to the point where they are absolutely mission critical. In sum, the world has become a highly interconnected place where digital technologies make modern civilization possible.

While these innovations in computer-based technologies have fundamentally changed the world for the better, there is a corresponding downside to these trends in the form of increased opportunities for cybercriminal activities. In this regard, Bossler and Berenblum (2019) emphasize that "these technological advancements have created myriad opportunities for offenders to commit various forms of crime [which] are often referred to as cybercrime and occur because the perpetrator uses special knowledge of cyberspace" (p. 495). Likewise, Sarre et al. (2018) cite the increasing ubiquity of Internet-enabled computer-assisted devices of all types to make the point that:

The world has well and truly entered the digital age where technology is ever-present and all pervasive. The development of technological innovations facilitates our everyday lives. But they also make significant contributions to criminality. Cybercrime has become a serious problem globally. The research needed to match the reality is struggling to keep up. (p. 515)

Consequently, an unfortunate concomitant of the proliferation of computer-based technologies has been a corresponding increase in cybercriminal activities, and the scope, type, and frequency of these attacks has increased in severity in recent years. For instance, Harkin, Whelan, and Chang (2018) report that "cybercrime is an escalating priority for national and international police and security agencies" (p. 519). This escalation is due in large part to the harsh reality that cybercrimes are not only becoming more commonplace, they are becoming more damaging as well to both the public and private sectors (Harkin et al., 2018).

Indeed, although precise figures are impossible to calculate — since many cybercrimes are never reported to authorities and the scope of others remains unclear — the estimates about the current costs of cybercrimes are staggering. According to Harkin et al. (2018), "some of the higher estimates of the costs of cybercrime tend to approach $1000 billion" (p. 520). A trillion dollars in costs directly attributable to cybercrime should give any national policymaker serious pause, but the actual figures involved may be even greater still given the nebulous nature of cybercriminality, suggesting that far more needs to be done to mitigate the enormous economic and human toll being exacted by cybercriminals today.

Defining and Categorizing Cybercrime

One of the constraints to improving and expanding the scholarship concerning cybercrime — in order to identify best practices and lessons learned — is a lack of definitional clarity concerning what types of activities fall under this umbrella term. According to Sarre and his associates (2018), "there is still no precise and clear definition of cybercrime in academic parlance. It is sometimes called 'electronic crime,' 'computer crime,' 'computer-related crime,' 'hi-tech crime,' 'technology-enabled crime,' 'e-crime,' or 'cyberspace crime'" (p. 516). In addition, cybercrime researchers have also confronted a number of different typologies used to categorize these offenses.

One such approach cited by Sarre et al. (2018) identified three basic types of cybercrimes based on common law principles and precedential legislation: (1) crimes where the computer is used as the instrument of crime; (2) crimes where the computer is incidental to the offense; and (3) crimes where the computer is the target of the crime (p. 516). Similarly, based on their analysis of actual cybercrime case data, Wu, Xiang, Gao, and Wu (2018) identified and described eight important characteristics of cybercrimes: (1) the diversification of criminal phenomena, (2) concealment of criminal processes, (3) modernization of criminal methods, (4) the intelligence of criminal organizations, (5) the rejuvenation of criminal subjects, (6) the unbounded criminal groups and regions, (7) the serious consequences of crimes, and (8) the difficulty in investigation and evidence collection.

Taken together, these eight distinguishing characteristics of cybercrime make it clear that they differ in substantive ways from many traditional criminal cases with respect to (1) finding clues, (2) filing for investigation, (3) identifying and protecting crime sites, (4) collecting and fixing the chain of evidence, (5) analyzing evidence and judicial identification, and (6) the adjudication of the criminal case. These distinguishing characteristics underscore many of the main differences between traditional crimes and cybercrimes, but there are some other differences that policymakers and security specialists must take into account as well (Wu et al., 2018).

For example, the term cybercrime is also applied to new types of criminal activities that are only possible using computer-based technologies, such as gaining unauthorized access to a computer network (Bossler & Berenblum, 2019). In other words, modern cybercrimes run the entire gamut of conventional criminality while also encompassing novel unlawful acts that would not be possible without computer-based technologies (Bossler & Berenblum, 2019). While traditional criminal activities and cybercrimes both involve breaking the law, there are important differences between the two that must be taken into account when formulating security strategies.

An important point made by Bossler and Berenblum (2019) is that, like other types of crimes, cybercrimes do not necessarily involve the theft of something of value for the unjust enrichment of others. For example, Bossler and Berenblum (2019) generally define cybercrime as "a large umbrella term that encompasses computer-assisted crime in which computers and technology are used in a supporting role, such as the use of a computer to send harassing messages" (p. 496). As discussed further below, cybercrimes differ in some respects from traditional crimes, but the net adverse impact on victims is frequently indistinguishable. Bossler and Berenblum (2019) point out that cybercrimes tend to fall into one of the following categories: (1) cyber-trespass, such as unauthorized system access; (2) cyber-deception/theft, such as identity theft, online fraud, or digital piracy; (3) cyber-pornography/obscenities, such as child sexual exploitation materials; and (4) cyber-violence, such as cyberstalking and cyber terrorism.

Conclusion

Even as the world struggles to cope with an ongoing Covid-19 pandemic and economic downturn, cybercriminals of all ilk are masterminding new ways to defeat existing security measures in ways that harm their victims. The research was consistent in showing that virtually anyone can be victimized by cybercrimes, but businesses and governments represent the most lucrative targets, especially for state-sponsored actors that seek to leverage asymmetrical cyber warfare tactics to gain an advantage over countries such as the United States and its Western allies.

The studies reviewed were also consistent in stressing the need for a coordinated, multinational response to the growing threat of cybercrimes, but there was also a general consensus that forging and maintaining viable security relationships with other countries and private sector actors is a daunting enterprise that demands additional scholarship. Like traditional crime, cybercrime will never be actually "solved," so security specialists, software engineers, and national lawmakers must remain vigilant to discover new types of cyber threats as well as novel uses of existing cybercrime strategies for the foreseeable future. In the final analysis, it is reasonable to conclude that security specialists a century ago could not conceptualize the types of cyber threats that are increasingly commonplace today, so it is also likely that an even greater threat will emerge in the future that will make the most serious cybercrimes at present look tame by comparison.

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