English Military History: From Celtic Tribes to 1688

Introduction

To understand the history of the English military up to the year 1688, we must first examine the history of England itself. The military has always been shaped by political and cultural factors, and several developments in technology have changed the face of warfare and, by extension, the development of the military institution.

In 1688, King James II was forcibly removed from power and replaced by William of Orange. James II was a Catholic, determined to reinstate Catholicism in England. After the birth of James's son and heir, a party of elder statesmen officially invited William of Orange — a Protestant — to come to England with a conquering army to save the kingdom from Catholic rule. This event is known as the Glorious Revolution.

Before England: Celtic and Roman Britain

Before examining the history of the English military, we must consider the roots of England itself. Up until the ninth century, there was no central England as such. England was divided into several smaller kingdoms, each alternately warring and trading with its neighbors. There was no sense of a unified English identity at this point in history, as diverse peoples were scattered across the island. Archaeologists have found substantial evidence that humans occupied England as far back as the Stone Age, though almost nothing is known about these early Britons, as they left no written tradition.

The earliest known inhabitants of the British Isles are the Celts. The Celts were a tribal people who had originated somewhere in Germany around 800 BC. They migrated westward throughout Europe, eventually crossing what would later be known as the English Channel to settle in England. They pushed aside the original inhabitants and eventually spread throughout Scotland, Wales, and Ireland as well.

The Celts had a strong warrior heritage — their chiefs were traditionally warriors. However, the Celts had no unified identity. Each tribe settled its own lands and chose a king from its own ranks. The tribes would wage war as well as trade with one another. They were an Iron Age people with fairly sophisticated metalworking skills. They wore little armor, and their weaponry consisted mostly of knives, swords, and spears. They had also developed the war chariot to a high degree.

The Romans first arrived in Britain in 55 BC but did not stay for long. The original expeditions launched by Julius Caesar were not intended to conquer the Isles; instead, they were meant to dissuade support for the Celtic tribes in Gaul who had been receiving aid from the British Celts. Almost one hundred years later, the Romans returned to occupy Britain for the long term. The Celts fought fiercely against Roman occupation but were ultimately outclassed by Roman military tactics. While the Celts were formidable warriors, they lacked the technology and cohesiveness to battle the Roman legions. The Romans had better body armor, superior missile power in the form of the pilum (javelin), and the resources of a standing army with established supply lines and administration — advantages the Celtic warrior-farmers, who also had crops to tend, simply could not match. Celtic hillforts were susceptible to siege tactics, and English chariots were vulnerable to Roman archers. Above all, the Celts had no capacity to band together against Rome, so the Romans fought individual tribes rather than a single great army. Despite their numerous advantages, however, Rome never successfully conquered the entire island, ruling only the south for the better part of four centuries.

The Romans ended their occupation in the early fifth century, pulling back their legions to combat the growing advances of barbarians in Europe. The British Isles were also under attack at this time, from invasions by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. These Germanic tribes pushed the native Britons back into Scotland and Wales over roughly two hundred years, settling and forming their own kingdoms. By the seventh century, England had been divided into seven warring kingdoms known as the Heptarchy: Kent, Sussex, Essex, East Anglia, Wessex, Mercia, and Northumbria. These seven kingdoms fought for supremacy until, in 802, the kingdom of Wessex supplanted Mercia as the most powerful. By 827, Ecgberht of Wessex was acknowledged as King of England.

The Army of England: Medieval Military Development

By the time of Alfred the Great (871–899), the English military had settled into the form it would retain for the next four hundred years. It largely consisted of the private armies of the nobility. The king had his personal soldiers, augmented by contingents from his vassals. Each noble was required to maintain a standing army for the common defense of the kingdom — particularly important during the period of Viking invasions into Britain.

Taking a page from the Romans, the English adopted the practice of a standing army with professional soldiers. The infantry was more heavily armored, though this tended to be reserved for trained elite troops. The longbow underwent significant development and would eventually become the weapon for which medieval England was most famous and feared. By this period, the war chariot had fallen out of use. Improvements in armor and horses gave rise to the lance-wielding heavy cavalry, which played an important role in battlefield supremacy for some time. In addition to trained and equipped troops, the nobles relied on large numbers of peasant conscripts to serve in the rank and file.

The classic troop types of the day were the infantry, cavalry, and archers. The infantry were foot soldiers armed with shields and hand weapons. They wore heavy body armor and were trained to use their shields in formation, both on offense and defense. The infantry served as the backbone of the army, effective in both roles.

With the advent of heavier armor and larger horses, cavalry played an increasingly important role in warfare. In its early days, the cavalry tended to be lightly armored. As time progressed, improved metalworking techniques and the breeding of larger horses allowed cavalry to mount heavier armor. Over time, the cavalry soldier came to resemble more and more the classic medieval knight clad in steel — eventually, both knight and horse were heavily armored. The cavalry charge was a devastating tactic, capable of breaking enemy lines with great effectiveness. The primary weapon of the cavalry was the lance, followed by the sword once the initial charge was over and melee combat began. The lance had begun as a spear but grew longer and longer to provide the advantage of reach to the mounted soldier. Cavalry was used almost exclusively on offense.

The archers were historically longbowmen. The English longbow is a formidable weapon in proficient hands and is the particular bow of England. Archers were used tactically to break the enemy's cavalry charge and to thin the ranks of the infantry. Lightly armored for greater maneuverability and speed, archers were kept in the rear ranks for protection from enemy infantry. The English longbowmen distinguished themselves at the Battle of Agincourt under Henry V, where a forest bottlenecked the French forces into a narrow strip of clear ground, enabling the archers to concentrate their fire with devastating effect.

The crossbow was also frequently used. It was not popular compared to the longbow, however, as its rate of fire was limited by the method required to cock and ready it for firing. The average steel crossbow could be fired four times a minute at most, whereas a skilled longbowman could have a second arrow in the air before the first had struck the ground. This rate of fire allowed archers to deliver a nearly continuous rain of arrows on the enemy.

Structures of the time were generally simple wood or stone constructions inspired in large part by the fortifications left by the Romans. Most towns had walls around them for protection, a practice also inherited from Roman practice. Warfare was conducted in a broadly Roman fashion, on open fields between opposing forces arrayed at either end. Battlefields were generally selected beforehand and tended to be open ground allowing for the coordinated movement of regimented troops. Troops were organized into formations that exploited shield-wall tactics and strategic maneuvering.

Conclusion

By the time of the Glorious Revolution, the English military had progressed from its medieval roots into the modern age. The castles and knights of the Middle Ages had given way to muskets and rifles. The seas were controlled by massive ships brimming with heavy cannon. The feudal society of nobles' private armies had transformed into a centralized, government-controlled military. These changes would lay the foundation for future expansion and empire-building on the part of the British.

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