This paper presents an original student-developed theory of child and adolescent lifespan development called Expectation Development Theory. Drawing on Erik Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development as a foundation, the theory proposes that individuals progress through sequential stages defined by whose expectations guide their behavior: first the expectations of the world, then of adults, then of peers, and finally of themselves. The fictional character Forrest Gump serves as the primary case study, with the film's narrative used to illustrate how each stage unfolds across infancy, childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood. The paper argues that the theory applies universally across cultures and socioeconomic circumstances.
For many years, child and adolescent behavior theorists have worked to develop and design theories explaining the various stages of the lifespan. Within these theories they have drawn conclusions about what stages children and adolescents pass through and what foundation they require to successfully move into the next developmental step in life.
Well-known psychiatrist and child development specialist Erik Erikson believed there were eight separate stages of development needed to attain adult maturity. These included learning basic trust as opposed to basic mistrust — a stage he termed Hope. The child who successfully completes this stage moves into the next one, Will, which concerns autonomy versus shame. This builds to the third step, Purpose, which involves initiative versus guilt. Competence includes industry opposing inferiority, while Fidelity involves learning identity against diffusion. The stage of Love presents intimacy against isolation, and the Care stage is built on generativity versus self-absorption. Finally, if all these stages are successfully navigated, integrity versus despair produces the culminating stage of Wisdom.
The Expectation Development Theory builds closely on Erikson's eight developmental stages; however, it takes the framework a step further by illustrating the importance of the various stages of expectations in an individual's life, and how the way those expectations are met plays a key role in the development of the whole person through adulthood.
In order to understand the different stages of the theory and how they can be observed through the life of Forrest Gump, it is important to have a basic understanding of the overall theory itself.
The Expectation Theory of Lifespan Development involves several stages of life. It is built on the idea that individuals pass through various stages of expectations, and if these stages are successfully met and handled, they are mentally, emotionally, and physically able to move into the next step of their lifespan development. The theory also recognizes that the importance of adults, peers, and others in the life of an individual alternates as various stages of development are entered and conquered.
The first stage involves the child's expectations of the world. As a child is born and travels through basic infancy, he or she develops expectations about how the world should respond to their needs. This is observed in a child's cry when hungry, wet, or ill, and in the expectation that those needs will be met by caregivers. If a child cries when hungry and a caretaker appears with a bottle or breast, the expectation is fulfilled. However, if that response does not occur consistently, the child begins to expect negative results from his or her cries, making it difficult to move into the next developmental stage.
If this first stage is successfully fulfilled, the child is then able to move into the next step, which is founded on expectations of themselves based on what the adults in their lives expect of them. One can observe this easily in a preschool or elementary school setting: a child will attempt a task and, if successful, will quickly look around to ensure the adults in their immediate life have noticed. The expectations that adults hold for a child will determine what that child will and will not accomplish. This stage encompasses learning to talk, tie shoes, ride a bike, and any number of other tasks normally encountered during these years of development.
The next step in the theory is called Peer Expectations. This is the stage of adolescence during which teenagers typically place more importance on peer approval than on anything else in their environment. It is during this stage that parents often observe their child ceasing to follow their wishes and becoming deeply invested in friendships. It is vital at this stage to encourage teenagers to socialize with peers who are goal-oriented and forward-looking, rather than with those who are creating problems in their lives. The adolescent in this stage relies heavily on the expectations of peers when choosing actions, decisions, and life pathways.
If each of these stages has been properly built upon, the individual will enter adulthood for the final phase of the theory: Self-Expectations. As the adolescent enters young adulthood in high school and college, they have built their personality and skills around the expectations of others, and their responses to those expectations have guided their decisions. At this final stage, the young adult combines everything they have become and learned to this point and begins to rely on their own expectations to guide them through life.
If the earlier stages were met with success, this final stage will be characterized by positive choices in careers, family life, and financial decisions. However, if any of the expectation development phases were met with negative attitudes, lack of interaction, or resistance, it will impair this final stage by stalling the adult in the phase that was not fully developed.
In examining the theory of Expectation Lifespan Development, one can readily use the character of Forrest Gump from the 1994 film to explore its various stages. The different stages encompass physical, social, and emotional development. The character is an excellent case study because the film lays out each stage of his life and clearly illustrates the different expectation development stages and how they worked for him as he developed into the adult he became. He is particularly valuable as a subject because of his various mental and physical challenges, which underscore the strength and consistency of the theory as a model of individual development.
The first stage of the theory — the expectation of the world — is not depicted in great detail during the movie. However, Forrest makes it clear in his retelling that this stage was met by his mother, who provided everything he needed during infancy and early childhood. The groundwork for his development was laid by her consistent and attentive care.
The next stage — expectations set by adults — is clearly illustrated as Forrest tells his story. His mother refused to treat him as if he were incapable of doing what other children his age were doing. She expected him to be verbal and social, and he was. She expected him to reach his personal best, and he did. When she enrolled him in school, she had already helped him build toward the next stage: upon hearing her argue with the principal, Forrest was ultimately admitted to school alongside other children. Furthermore, despite the heavy leg braces Forrest wore in his early years, his mother never discouraged him from attempting tasks, and he was able to accomplish far more physically than most children who wore similar braces.
When Forrest encounters Jenny — his childhood friend and the woman who would eventually become his lifelong love and the mother of his child — he has been primed by the adult expectations stage to react positively when she tells him to run from the bullies. In the film's iconic line, "Run, Forrest, run!" there is a metaphoric illustration of him leaving behind the stage in which adult expectations are dominant and entering the next stage: the expectations of peers.
"Traces each developmental stage through film scenes"
The transition into the final stage of development is also portrayed during the film. Before Forrest enters the army, during his football years, he is still in the peer expectations stage: his teammates and coaches expect him to run and score, and the recurring shout of "Run, Forrest, run!" heard on the football field provides the bridge from peer expectations into self-expectation. If all earlier stages are successfully completed, the final stage — self-expectation — can be entered. However, if one or more previous stages fails, the individual may become stuck at that earlier stage, sometimes as far back as infancy.
For example, if an infant's cries for food or comfort go consistently unmet, that infant cannot successfully move forward and may become an adult who is chronically needy and dependent on others. If an individual does not achieve success during the adult expectations stage of childhood, they may become an adult who constantly seeks external approval through co-dependent thoughts and behaviors. Understanding these consequences is important to child development practice and early intervention.
In the case of Forrest Gump, it is evident that he successfully navigates infancy, childhood, and adolescence and is able to enter the final step of the developmental theory: self-expectation. It is during this stage that the adult begins to expect results from himself or herself and is no longer dependent on the outside world for internal validation.
This is seen when Forrest enters the army and completes his tour of duty, sustaining injury and saving all of his fellow troops on the battlefield. However, the most illuminating illustration of this stage is found after his military service. When Bubba dies and is unable to complete their shared dream of co-owning a shrimp boat company, Forrest confidently moves forward on his own and becomes the financially successful owner of a shrimp company. He divides his earnings equally with Bubba's family and ensures that Bubba's dream of providing for his family is honored.
The self-expectation stage can also be seen in the way Forrest cares for his homestead and accepts Jenny into his life when she arrives to be with him. The most touching evidence of this final developmental stage comes after Jenny passes away and Forrest is left to raise their son alone — which he does with confidence and a quiet, unwavering belief in his own ability to do so. This mirrors themes explored in broader research on psychosocial development and the role of internal agency in adult functioning.
The Expectation Lifespan Development Theory is one that builds on earlier theorists' ideas. While Erikson was on target with his eight stages of development, he failed to fully account for the importance of expectations across the lifespan. When people are born and pass through their development, expectations are always involved — both the expectations others hold for the individual and the expectations the individual eventually holds for themselves.
This theory can be applied to any culture, any human society, and any location. Even in undeveloped nations, the stages remain consistent regardless of life circumstances or socioeconomic levels. In communities across the world, parents meet the needs of their children during the expectation-of-the-world stage, transition through the adult and peer expectation stages, and in the end raise children who become self-sufficient adults during the final self-expectation phase.
The character of Forrest Gump is an excellent example of the theory's strength precisely because of the various disabilities he faced — both mental and physical. His story illustrates the theory in action during a lifespan that society would not ordinarily expect to yield normal or average development. It underscores the basic scope and sequence of the theory by providing evidence of its stages being successfully completed under exceptional circumstances. Throughout the film, the audience witnesses each stage that Gump passes through, and sees how the success of each stage helps build the foundation for the next.
As the boy becomes a teenager and the teenager becomes a man, the success of each expectation stage enables him to transfer, ultimately, from dependence on the expectations of others to a confident reliance on self-expectation — achieving success in daily life. The film demonstrates that this theory can be applied to human life with little regard for particular cultures or societies, and this universality lends credibility to the theory itself. Further reading on developmental psychology provides a broader context for understanding how such stage-based frameworks have evolved over time.
Groom, W. (1994). Forrest Gump. Paramount Studios.
Stages of Social-Emotional Development in Children and Teenagers. (Accessed July 11, 2007). http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/erickson.shtml
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