Fire Safety Management: Systems, Construction, and Prevention

Introduction to Fire Safety Management

Fire technology has expanded significantly in recent years, providing important fire safety management components. These include the construction of more fire-retardant buildings and the implementation of fire codes and OSHA regulations that require certain safety standards to be acknowledged and followed in commercial environments. Residents may also benefit from fire prevention measures geared toward education and personal safety. Some fire safety measures applicable to the home may also be applied in a commercial setting. For example, the use of an emergency evacuation route is an essential fire safety strategy with both residential and commercial applications. The most critical components of fire safety management are examined in greater detail below.

Fire Protection and Suppression Systems

Planning and preparation are often the key to safety in the event of a fire or any other emergency. The lessons learned in an emergent situation are often critical to preventing damage in future emergencies. Fire protection and suppression systems were created with safety in mind; these systems fulfill some basic needs, including detection, notification, and suppression of fires. Alarm systems are structured to notify occupants of a building in the event of a fire and to summon the assistance of firefighters when an emergency occurs. Alarm systems were not always required in commercial manufacturing plants — a majority of older structures had very few protective measures in place to ensure the safety of occupants and firefighters. These standards have changed considerably in contemporary times. The use of fire alarm systems often goes hand in hand with fire suppression systems, which act to reduce the severity of a fire once it has started. In some instances, particularly in the case of a small fire, a suppression system may be sufficient to extinguish the fire entirely.

The most commonly utilized form of fire suppression system has traditionally been the automatic sprinkler system. These systems are reliable for a majority of structures, including commercial, industrial, institutional, and residential buildings (IFSTA, 1998). Fire sprinkler systems were developed primarily to minimize the damage caused by fires. The Factory Mutual Research Corporation conducted a survey indicating that as many as 70% of all minor structure fires are contained through the use of sprinklers (IFSTA, 1998). Unfortunately, despite the proven effectiveness of such systems, they are still not present in a majority of buildings constructed before certain legislation mandated their installation.

Despite the seemingly straightforward rationale behind fire suppression systems — particularly sprinklers — major accidents and threats to human safety still occur. This was exemplified in January 2000 when a fire broke out in a freshman dormitory at Seton Hall University in South Orange, New Jersey. In the devastating fire, three students were killed and an additional 62 were injured (Patterson, 2000). The residence halls were typical of many in college environments: no fire suppression systems had been installed in certain older portions of the campus.

Since that accident, a university-wide plan was undertaken to ensure that sprinkler systems were adequately installed in all areas of student living facilities. Accidents like these highlight the need for stricter examination and regulation of fire safety and protection in buildings.

In a survey conducted by the National Fire Prevention Association, more than 1,500 fires were reported in college dormitories in 1997, resulting in over 50 injuries and more than $7 million in property damage (Patterson, 2000). Notably, some very basic fire prevention and safety measures that could have minimized these fires — or prevented the damage altogether — were not in place. In another poll conducted in early 2000, at least one dormitory in 67% of campuses surveyed was without an adequate fire suppression system, and more than 43% of student dormitories overall were not appropriately protected.

Dormitories are not unique in their vulnerability to major fires. The well-documented MGM Grand hotel fire is an example of a situation where a fire suppression system might have minimized the damage. A fire started in the hotel's deli, igniting plastic paneling throughout the restaurant. The fumes were drawn into the HVAC system and distributed throughout the building, causing many victims to die from smoke and toxic gas inhalation. Had sprinklers been installed, the fire might have been contained quickly, the build-up of smoke and toxins minimized, and a majority of occupants evacuated before serious harm occurred.

There are common-sense steps that all buildings and organizations can take to minimize the likelihood of injury, death, and property loss in the event of a fire. The primary safety mechanism is ensuring that buildings are equipped with fire alarms and sprinklers or equivalent fire suppression systems. These measures alone are often sufficient to reduce property damage and protect occupants. Fire suppression systems are capable of localizing a small emergency, providing valuable time for firefighters to arrive and fully extinguish a fire before massive destruction occurs. Studies suggest that the chance of death in a fire is reduced by half in a building equipped with adequate suppression systems. Remarkably, however, many buildings constructed before suppression requirements existed still lack such systems, as owners often fail to retrofit them. Individuals should assess their environment for suppression systems and, where they are absent, consider implementing and practicing emergency evacuation plans.

Smoke detectors are another commonly utilized fire detection and alarm tool that can prove life-saving in certain situations. They are widely used in individual residences as well as commercial organizations.

Many buildings can also be equipped with manually activated alarm systems that provide a local warning to occupants when a premises must be evacuated (IFSTA, 1998). Automatic fire alarm systems function much like smoke detectors — they are designed to detect heat and initiate a warning signal.

Some heat detectors are fixed-temperature devices. These older, relatively inexpensive units are sometimes considered less efficient and more prone to false alarms; they are designed to activate when temperature rises above a set threshold (IFSTA, 1998). Other heat detector types that utilize more advanced functionality include the following:

Fusible Devices: A fusible link type of fire alarm in which two electrodes are held together by a piece of soft metal — the "fusible" link — used in conjunction with a sprinkler system. The metal holds two level arms that block the sprinkler valve. Heat melts the link, releasing the arms and activating the sprinkler.

Frangible Bulbs: A type of sprinkler fitted with a glass bulb containing a liquid that expands when heated, shatters the bulb, and opens the sprinkler valve.

Continuous Line Detector: A fire alarm consisting of a cable with a conductive metal core. When heat from a fire affects two insulated wires, the flow of electricity between them is interrupted, triggering an alarm.

Bimetallic Detector: A spot detector composed of two metals with different thermal expansion characteristics. When heated, one metal expands faster than the other, causing the assembly to flex or bend and initiate an alarm sequence.

Smoke detectors differ from heat detectors in that they detect smoke produced very early in a fire's development, without requiring the generation of significant heat before issuing a warning (IFSTA, 1998). Many occupancies prefer smoke detectors precisely because of this early-detection capability. There are two basic types of smoke detectors: photoelectric and ionization.

A photoelectric detector uses a beam of light focused on a small area to keep a circuit switch open. When smoke obscures the light path to the receiver, the current drops, the switch closes, and an alarm signal is issued (IFSTA, 1998). An ionization smoke detector responds by detecting invisible products of combustion — ionized particles — which enter a chamber and reduce the current flowing between two plates, triggering an alarm signal.

Other safety equipment includes flame detectors and combination detectors. Regardless of the type of system used, it is important that each is properly maintained and tested on an annual or bi-annual basis.

Building Construction and Fire Proofing

Modern buildings are generally constructed to be more heat- and fire-resistant than their historical counterparts. In earlier eras, buildings would frequently ignite rapidly, constructed of easily flammable materials with inadequate ventilation and no fire suppression systems. Fire-fighting mechanisms of the past were also not equipped with sufficiently advanced technology to combat serious fires at high altitudes. That has changed significantly. Fire codes and regulations now dictate that buildings be constructed to better resist fire and enhance life safety.

Buildings generally fall into five types. Type I is fire-resistive and Type II is non-combustible — these two are the most fire-resistant. Large buildings housing many occupants or significant quantities of flammable materials are generally constructed of steel and glass, enabling them to withstand fire for longer periods. Building codes are being updated to reflect the necessity of more fire-safe structures. Gypsum lining is used to coat steel I-beams, helping to support a building's weight against gravity during a fire; since steel can expand rapidly when heated, fire-resistive materials are applied to reduce this expansion. If a building is designed to be more fire-resistive, the likelihood that occupants can escape without harm is substantially increased.

Type III is ordinary construction — made of standard materials without specific fire-proofing. Types IV and V are heavy timber and wood frame, respectively, and are generally the most combustible. These typically include average homes and older factories or churches built of heavy timber. Such structures generally do not afford the same level of protection as Type I and II buildings. Fire codes unfortunately cannot be applied retroactively; one persistent challenge within the fire service is the inability to enforce new codes on older buildings. Fire protection agencies cannot compel owners or operators of older structures to retrofit them with modern protective devices — a limitation that can contribute to complications and deaths in the event of a serious fire.

Fire codes have also been developed to ensure building safety through requirements such as mandating that all fire doors open outward so that occupants do not pile up behind them. Wide push-bars — commonly called panic bars — allow doors to open with a simple push, an essential feature when large numbers of panicked people are attempting to escape a burning building. Additional safety precautions established through fire codes include exit lighting, which must be independently illuminated from the building's main electrical system. Fire exits must be clearly marked throughout the building, and doors leading to stairwells must have automatic closing mechanisms but cannot be locked.

HVAC systems are now also utilized to help control fire. They can be programmed to vent smoke and combustion products away from stairways, or shut down entirely to retard the spread of fire and smoke.

EDITH and Home Safety Programs

"Exit Drills in the Home" (EDITH) was designed primarily with homeowners in mind. An EDITH plan consists of occupants discussing the appropriate actions to take in the event of a fire, identifying appropriate escape routes, and establishing a designated meeting place to gather once everyone is safely out of the building. EDITH plans are only useful if practiced; families are therefore encouraged to rehearse them at least once or twice so they are prepared in the event of an emergency.

EDITH can also be adapted to serve commercial occupancies. All buildings should have documented evacuation and emergency exit plans to minimize the chance of injury or loss of life in the event of a fire. These plans should be practiced regularly. Employees should be familiar with exit and evacuation routes and should know where to assemble during an emergency. Such preparations can significantly reduce the potential for harm in the event of a disaster.

References

Blakely, J. "Band Safety Tips — Night Club Fires and Stampedes."

IFSTA. (1998). Essentials of Fire Fighting. International Fire Service Training Association. Board of Regents: Oklahoma State University.

Jackson, Kenneth T. (1995). "Triangle Shirtwaist Fire." The Encyclopedia of New York City.

Patterson, J. (September 2000). "Fighting Fire With." The Magazine for Leaders in Higher Education, Vol. 1.