Gender Discrimination Against Female Athletes in Sports Media

Introduction: Media Treatment of Santhi Soundarajan

A video released by IBN Live reveals the gender discrimination suffered by Indian athlete Santhi Soundarajan, who lost her silver medal in the female 800m race at the Asian Games in Doha after failing a gender test. The host of the show very calmly ridiculed the athlete and bluntly joked about her gender, laughing and suggesting that the management and staff members had perhaps "slipped out of her shorts." He also engaged in candid questioning about Soundarajan's femininity, making statements such as, "Does she have a uterus? I don't know." He further expressed doubt about whether Soundarajan was a woman and stated that he found it fascinating that she did not possess the sexual attributes of a woman.

Lady reporter Jill Pike questioned the fundamentals of the testing and criticized the news article for not revealing the full facts related to the test failure, disregarding the athlete's medical privacy rights. The conversations between the hosts clearly depicted that they lacked in-depth knowledge about gender testing policy and were uninformed about the potential causes of test failure. Moreover, the host's approach towards the issue was humiliating and unprofessional.

The Social Issue: Gender Discrimination in Female Athletics

The central social issue in this analysis is the gender discrimination of female athletes. There has been a rapid evolution in women's sport over the last 30 years, along with a remarkable growth in opportunities for women athletes to compete at the professional level. Unfortunately, however, major sections of the media remain dedicated to men (The Women's Sports Foundation, 2004). Moreover, inappropriate media attention towards female athletes is limited to their femininity and sexual appeal rather than their athletic abilities (Fink and Kensicki, 2002). These inappropriate media representations reinforce stereotypes about women athletes by emphasizing physical appearance and sexual appeal, constructing an ideal image of the athlete as thin, sexually appealing, and physically attractive (Duke and Greer, 2008).

Review of Literature: Insufficient Media Coverage of Female Athletes

Sports sociologists have long observed a lack of coverage of women's sports in conventional news media. There is an absence of respectful and appropriate coverage of women's sports in both print media (Bishop, 2003; Pratt et al., 2008; Vincent, 2004; Vincent and Crossman, 2008) and mainstream television media (Daddario and Wigley, 2007; Messner, Duncan, and Willms, 2006). Despite this, there has been a remarkable improvement in athletic performance among women over the past century. A review of world track and field records by Lippi et al. (2008) highlighted that the rate of improvement among female athletes was greater than among men during the same period. It is also suggested that greater participation turnover can be expected if women are given sufficient opportunities and training.

Although efforts have been made to educate mainstream media about stereotypical coverage of women athletes and their improved performances, certain persistent patterns remain. Longitudinal studies carried out by Messner et al. (2006) showed that women's sport is not being given proper attention, and that over a 15-year period there has been no expansion in media coverage of women's sports. When female athletes are covered, they are more often represented as sex objects rather than skilled and capable athletes (Kian and Clavio, 2011). This inappropriate and negative portrayal of female athletes by media sustains and maintains hegemonic masculinity in western culture (Vincent and Crossman, 2008).

In mainstream media, female athletes who fail to meet the expectations of the ideal athlete remain the subject of ridicule and become targets for racist and sexist commentary (Cooky et al., 2010). For female professional athletes at the highest level, functional muscularity is acceptable within competition. However, athletes are typically constrained by social perceptions of femininity, which do not align with muscularity (Boyle, 2005; Mosewich et al., 2009). Studies on female athletes consistently note that men have a greater desire to gain muscularity than women. Muscularity is viewed positively in competition but is considered a hindrance in social settings (Steinfeldt et al., 2011; Krane et al., 2009). Media enacts these dominant cultural norms and serves as a major force in forming gender stereotypes and gender discrimination in sports (Steinfeldt, Carter, Benton, and Steinfeldt, 2011; Krane et al., 2004; McCreary and Saucier, 2009). One study, conducted at NCAA Division I schools, examined cover photographs of sport media guides for the years 1990 and 1997 (Buysse and Embser-Herbert, 2004). The photographs showed that women during that period were captured in poses that were less athletic and carried greater sexual appeal.

When media portrays female athletes, it more commonly emphasizes their physical appearance and is more likely to show them in sexualized poses (Kamphoff et al., 2011). This has a negative influence on women and girls, resulting in dissatisfaction with their own bodies (Grabe et al., 2008). Research identifies that such body dissatisfaction may lead to eating disorders such as bulimia, as well as low self-esteem, depression, and obesity (Hyde and Lindberg, 2007; Paxton et al., 2006). Body dissatisfaction has thus emerged as a significant concern for women's physical and psychological health.

As noted above, more research has been conducted on how the sexualization of female athletes affects women compared to men (Aubrey and Taylor, 2009). Daniels and Wartena (2011) conducted research on male reactions to media images of women by studying responses to female athletes. Responses were gathered regarding both athletic performance and sexuality. The results indicated that sexualized poses of athletes directed attention toward their physical appearance in the same way that images of models do. The researchers also noted negative responses to women athletes and suggested that men should focus more on athletes' athletic skills. This study provides a foundation for efforts aimed at challenging media content and reflects the negative influence of the sexualization of female athletes on viewers.

Cunningham et al. (2004) proposed that unless athletes are presented in media in a proper and dignified fashion, other girls will be unable to find athletic ideals in them and will not come forward to participate. Furthermore, Giuliano et al. (2007) noted that women who had athletic role models during childhood tended to participate more in sports compared to women who did not. If the number of female athletes who participate and perform in world sports increases, the number of athletic role models available for children to emulate will also increase. Balaguer et al. (2012) note the troubling fact that females are not commonly regarded as role models in orthodox culture; they are more often represented as fashion models — glamorous and thin — unlike female athletes, who possess a degree of muscularity.

At high levels of competition between female athletes, assumptions of fair play have been given greater priority than the implications of discrimination (Sullivan, 2011). According to the World Anti-Doping Agency, male athletes are permitted a "therapeutic use exemption" to use testosterone if they have an underlying medical condition, while this substance is prohibited in all other circumstances. Media does not necessarily cover this important issue, even though fans and officials are concerned about the integrity of women's competition and the issue receives substantial media exposure (Dreger, 2010).

Cooky et al. (2012) examined media coverage of Caster Semenya, whose sex was questioned after she won the IAAF 2009 World Championship representing South Africa. South African media portrayed the gender-verification process as racist, a human rights violation, and a product of western dominant notions of womanhood and beauty. U.S. media portrayed the process as a procedure ensuring fair judgment and equality, and also debated the science behind gender testing. Dreger (2010) discussed the outcome of the resulting media circus, which caused Semenya to seek isolation, and argued that policies protecting athlete privacy were inadequate. Gooren (2011) examined the physiological differences between men and women and provided a case study on gender discrimination in sports and the significance of the gender-verification process. He advised that unfair competition ought to be avoided and concluded that the measures taken by the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) represented the best approach to ensuring quality in competitive sports. He also concluded that natural endowments will vary among competitors. These limited study findings can be seen as a failure to adequately expose the societal context faced by women who are judged publicly on the basis of their gender and whose privacy is intruded upon (Ballantyne, Kayser, and Grootegoed, 2012). While the reasons for gender testing may be applicable, it is suggested that the procedure be completed before athletes enter competition, in order to minimize burden and unfair publicity.

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