Human Behavior Theories and Child Development Milestones

Introduction to Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology entails the changes that occur to human beings across their lives. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to cover the entire human life span. It focuses on a range of topics such as psycho-physiological processes including motor skills, as well as cognitive development involving moral understanding, language acquisition, problem solving, identity formation, emotional development, self-concept, and conceptual understanding. Developmental psychology also examines the extent of development through stage-like progression versus the gradual accumulation of knowledge, and the degree to which children learn behaviors or are born with innate mental structures.

This paper describes the psychological, biological, and socio-developmental milestones and neurobiology of a five-year-old child. It uses various theories to elucidate the degree to which the child meets expectations of normal development, and analyzes the socio-cultural and environmental factors that play a role in his development. The psychodynamic theory is used to explain how the child's behavior developed.

It is important to appreciate that many factors — including environment, personal characteristics, and social context — affect development either positively or negatively. The way a child acts, learns, and speaks offers important clues about his or her development. Developmental milestones are things that most children can do after reaching a certain age, and they span social and emotional, communication and language, cognitive, and physical domains. In adults, political behavior is viewed as inactive, active, or reactive (See, 2006).

Ecological Theory and Developmental Milestones

Ecological theory states that family, work, and other systems are microsystems consisting of face-to-face relationships. Interactions between persons may be negative or positive, and may be reciprocal or unidirectional (Voydanoff, 2011).

At this stage, children exhibit several characteristics considered normal. They want to please friends and to be like them, and are more likely to agree with rules and regulations. They show concern for others, are aware of gender, and can distinguish between what is real and what is make-believe. In most cases, they demonstrate independence by visiting neighbors on their own. They can be demanding at times and very cooperative at others. Children at this stage enjoy acting, dancing, and singing, and show sympathy and concern for other people.

In normal development, children speak very clearly. They tell simple stories using full sentences, address others by name, and use the future tense in their sentence structures.

Cognitive development entails the manner in which children learn, think, and solve problems. Children at this stage can count to ten or more, draw a person, and print some letters or numbers. They can copy triangles and other geometric shapes, and understand things used on a daily basis such as food and money.

Normal children at this stage can stand on one foot for one second or longer, and may be able to hop, skip, and do a somersault. They can use a spoon, fork, and sometimes a table knife, and can use the toilet independently (Milton et al., 2004).

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development

During the first month after birth, the child slept an average of 12–16 hours a day. He liked to suck his fingers and anything else that came close to his mouth. When hungry or wet, he would cry, and his mother was always there to change and feed him. By three months, he was turning his head when he heard his mother's voice. At six months, he would smile at his parents when he saw them and had begun to roll over, much to his parents' delight. At twelve months, he expressed self-independence by showing no separation anxiety when his mother left the room.

At 21 months, the child was able to touch his own nose for the first time. His father consistently responded to his demands. The child showed considerable independence when he fed himself Filipino spaghetti and climbed into the car seat on his own. His father bought him a blue pair of Transformers pajamas, which he insisted on wearing every single night. By age three, he had learned to fly a kite on his own and could communicate clearly with his father about it. By age four, he had learned to tie the trash bag and take it to the dumpster every Friday morning. He also learned to lock the doors and claimed responsibility for doing so, getting up every night to open the door for his father when he came home.

Numerous psychiatrists and psychologists have identified various theories attempting to explain the stages of child development. Some children may move through the stages independently. If a parent notices abnormal development, they should contact their child's pediatrician. There are five key stages of child development: trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus doubt and shame, initiative versus guilt, industry versus inferiority, and identity versus role confusion.

Before the age of two years, the infant is focused on the primary caregiver, who is responsible for providing for his basic needs. If a child is regularly comforted, bathed, and fed, the child develops a basic trust in the wider world. Rejecting the child or withholding care may lead to mistrust and conflict. In this child's case, his mother was always available to feed and change him, and the care she showed him supported healthy development at this stage.

The second stage occurs in two- to three-year-olds. During this phase, children learn to control basic functions and make simple choices related to dressing, eating, and toileting. Children at this age can seem irritable and willful. Parents are encouraged to provide age-appropriate options and to support their children's attempts at self-control. Research shows that children develop a sense of autonomy when they are encouraged to act within safe boundaries.

Children aged three to five years are often curious about their surroundings and highly imaginative. At this age, they begin to take charge of how they spend their leisure time, often inventing a rich fantasy life and creative games. Parents must allow their children to face age-appropriate challenges and provide plenty of downtime for creative play. Children who are dismissed or stifled may develop feelings of helplessness and may feel embarrassed or guilty about their growing independence. By age three, this child had already learned to fly a kite independently, reflecting healthy initiative at this stage.

The early school years — roughly ages six to eleven — are marked by numerous changes. Children at this stage face increasingly demanding requirements in both social situations and schoolwork. This stage centers on a child's growing need to feel competent and effective. Children who successfully navigate these challenges develop a strong sense of self-confidence, while those who do not may lose self-esteem or feel inferior. Parents should remain supportive and open rather than solving problems on their children's behalf, providing a safe environment for children to work through challenges on their own terms.

This stage occurs during the teen years, approximately ages twelve to eighteen — challenging years for both parents and teenagers. At this age, children are increasingly focused on developing an independent identity, are particularly attentive to how they fit in socially, and are highly conscious of how they appear to others. It is normal for teenagers to experiment with different ways of behaving and different personalities. Parents should support their children's independence while setting age-appropriate boundaries, offering feedback and fostering open dialogue. Children who successfully navigate this stage develop a strong understanding of themselves and others, which increases their self-confidence and helps them make reasoned choices as they move toward adulthood.