Human Trafficking: Mental Health, Gender, and Global Patterns

Introduction and Definition of Human Trafficking

Human trafficking is defined as "the recruitment and movement of people by force, coercion or deception, for the purposes of exploitation" (Abas et al. 2013: 1). However, according to a 2013 study by Abas et al., current literature on the subject of human trafficking is somewhat problematic, given that research studies have focused on victims at different stages of trafficking and combined the perspectives of a wide range of persons of different ethnicities. This compromises the internal validity of the studies, since so many other factors could affect results. Still, there is evidence that women who have been trafficked suffer from higher rates of depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Abas et al. 2013: 1).

To offer a more controlled study, Abas et al. (2013) conducted a study on Moldavian women specifically. All women in the study were eligible to receive government post-intervention crisis care as a result of being victims of human trafficking. To ensure internal consistency, all women in the study were age 18 or over and had been returned to Moldova within the past 12 months after being victimized. More than half had children. Countries to which they had been trafficked included Turkey, Russia, and EU member states, among others.

Mental Health Consequences in Trafficked Women

Trained female interviewers conducted the actual interviews. So that the women did not relive their trauma, they were not specifically asked about the trafficking experience itself but about the symptoms they were experiencing and about past incidents such as physical, emotional, and childhood sexual abuse. Current social stressors included access to work, personal safety concerns, a lack of legal assistance, and low self-esteem (Abas et al. 2013: 4). In addition to interviews, previously validated screening instruments were used to address different categories of personal stress independently. Questionnaires were self-administered and not specific to trafficking. Both pre- and post-trafficking demographic factors were recorded, including: "education status; pre-trafficking employment status; pre-trafficking residence (rural or urban); childhood emotional abuse; physical abuse; and sexual abuse; duration of trafficking; post-trafficking marital status; post-trafficking employment status; number of unmet needs; and social support score" (Abas et al. 2013: 5). The type of exploitation — sexual versus labor-related — was also noted, although it was not the subject of the actual interviews.

This survey of mental status before trafficking revealed that many of the women were in highly stressful situations even before being trafficked — up to 30% reported being abused (Abas et al. 2013: 7). Abuse victims are more likely to suffer PTSD. Over half of the women in the study met DSM-IV criteria for a mental disorder, including PTSD, depression, and anxiety disorders (Abas et al. 2013: 7). Previous victims of sexual abuse were even more likely to suffer from these disorders. Other exacerbating factors included longer duration of trafficking and a lack of social support after being trafficked. The implications of the study included the need for proper social support of victims to minimize long-term psychological effects.

In agreement with Abas et al. (2013), Hepburn and Simon (2010) note that there are certain country-specific aspects of human trafficking, such as the heated nature of the debate about illegal immigration in the United States and the caste system in India, which has exacerbated extreme poverty in rural areas and made individuals vulnerable to trafficking (Hepburn & Simon 2010: 1). However, in contrast to Abas et al. (2013), Hepburn and Simon believe that there are generalizable characteristics of human trafficking across nations and cultures. "Such common characteristics are fraudulent recruitment, exorbitant travel and recruitment fees, the withholding of the victim's visas and other identifying documentation, controlling and limiting the victim's movements, threatening deportation, threatening to harm the victim or his/her family, and physically harming the victim" (Hepburn & Simon 2010: 1). Hepburn and Simon's research constitutes a comprehensive review of existing literature on the subject of trafficking.

Demographics, Gender, and Statistical Disputes

They found that human trafficking persists because it is both lucrative and widely concealed, despite its many victims, the majority of whom are assumed to be women. According to one study, "women and girls make up 56% of persons trafficked for the purposes of forced labor while men and boys make up 44%. In terms of those trafficked for the purposes of forced commercial sexual exploitation, women and girls make up 98% and men and boys comprise 2%. Lastly, children constitute 40–50% of the overall forced labor population" (Hepburn & Simon 2010: 2). According to the results of another study, this may be due to the fact that the majority of victims are trafficked into the sex trade — over 43%. Of those remaining, 32% are conscripted into forced labor and the rest for a mixture of purposes (Hepburn & Simon 2010: 2).

This data is, however, contested: the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) actually estimates that "domestic, food and care services, garment, and agricultural slavery make up 46.2% of trafficking cases," not the sex trade (Hepburn & Simon 2010: 3–4). This startling discrepancy in statistical data highlights the tremendous challenge of keeping accurate records regarding trafficking victims. The crime is by nature clandestine, and victims may fear revealing their status for a considerable length of time — if ever — causing their victimization to be not only unpunished but uncounted.

This suggests there may be a widespread underestimation of the number of males trafficked. In a 2010 U.S.-specific study, a 15% increase in adult male trafficking victims was noted compared to 2007, and a 39% increase since fiscal year 2006. The fact that this coincided with a recent economic downturn suggests that businesses may be more willing to use questionable labor sources in order to reduce costs (Hepburn & Simon 2010: 3–4). Trafficking in New Orleans also experienced a notable spike in the wake of Hurricanes Rita and Katrina and the economic as well as physical devastation these disasters generated (Hepburn & Simon 2010: 5).

Conclusion: Toward a Qualitative, Victim-Centered Approach

Within the literature there is some dispute as to whether it is more useful to study trafficking's country-specific features or to treat it as a general global phenomenon. Likewise, the need for national versus international responses to effectively curtail trafficking remains unclear. Because the crime is so shadowy, data remains ambiguous regarding both the characteristics of and the number of persons affected by trafficking. This dissertation will strive to present a qualitative, open-ended perspective and enable victims to speak about their own experiences, highlighting differences as well as similarities based upon their prior circumstances and their experience of this crime.