Junior Golf Programs, Social Learning, and Youth Development

Introduction

Junior golf programs provide a level of learning that instills confidence, ability, and aptitude in those who participate. Social cognitive theory provides a framework from which to advance a deeper understanding of learning and development. Through communication and observation, youth who participate in junior golf programs formulate a sense of fairness, competitive spirit, and confidence that transcends the sport and carries over into school and other aspects of their lives. Along with learning, improving physical health through exercise can lead to positive changes both mentally and physically, as seen in the Health Belief Model. This literature review aims to connect both social cognitive theory and the Health Belief Model to the efficacy of junior golf programs, and to provide examples from previous studies demonstrating the benefits of offering at-risk youth a positive outlet like sports.

The Health Belief Model helps identify perceived barriers to healthy behavior. In a 2013 study, researchers examined Thai children of primary school age and the impact of perceived barriers with regard to physical activity. The results pointed to playing outdoors near strangers, bad weather, and having too much homework as the main obstacles to performing physical activity. These hurdles to good health demonstrate that environment plays a role in how much physical activity a child or teenager engages in. "A safe environment and fewer barriers, such as amount of homework, could enhance physical activity in primary school children" (Ar-yuwat, Clark, Hunter, & James, 2013, p. 119). At-risk teens often live in troubled environments where they are afraid to play outside. They may live in neighborhoods that are poorly maintained and where criminal activity takes place.

Perceived Barriers to Physical Activity

The strengths of this cross-sectional study are that it helps the reader understand what types of barriers may lead to reduced physical activity in youth. Environment plays a significant role in the level of motivation and desire a child or teenager has to remain physically active. Programs like junior golf give options to underserved youth by providing a safe, controlled space where they can exercise and learn through sport.

Barriers to physical activity may not come only from the environment — they may also stem from negative beliefs associated with sexuality. Homosexuality and sports are not seen by some as congruent. Some believe homosexuality evokes femininity, and femininity is seen as the antithesis of physical prowess and athleticism. However, these perceptions have diminished, as seen in a 2011 study that examined participants' perceptions of gay male athletes. Results showed no negative correlation among sports fans between homosexuality and athletic ability. The results even demonstrated a slight positive correlation, showing that perceived barriers are just that — perceptions (Campbell et al., 2011).

Underserved communities often include a population of homosexual youth. These negative perceptions may discourage their involvement in sports. Programs like junior golf may replace such negative perceptions with positive and concrete results. The study represents another step forward in the elimination of perceived barriers. Because homosexuality remains a sensitive subject, open discussion of this concern helps reveal the truth behind these correlations so that more youth can participate, stay active in sports, and disregard negative stereotypes.

The same femininity perceived in relation to homosexuality can also be applied to girls and women. Females are sometimes not encouraged to participate in certain sports because those activities are viewed as masculine. However, a 2011 article suggests there is encouragement for females to participate in sports, and that inequalities in fact lie with males. The study focused on a four-part periodization of both counter-hegemonic and hegemonic gender ideologies. The findings suggest males do not have as many options compared to females when it comes to youth sports. The researchers explored these findings through the concept of "soft essentialism," though more information is needed to clarify what kinds of options females are given compared to males. "By contrast, adults still don't have very sophisticated ways of thinking about boys, beyond assuming that everything they do is driven by 'testosterone,' and by their natural predispositions to be active, aggressive, and competitive" (Messner, 2011, pp. 161–162). Some minor focus in the study led to the observation that males are believed to be unable to participate in "feminine" sports like figure skating or cheerleading, and are instead expected to demonstrate greater physical prowess.

Another potential barrier to physical activity is addiction. Alcoholism and drug use are prevalent across the world. Sports may help some youth, but research also shows that sports can create enough stress to increase alcohol and drug use, especially when youth participate in both team and individual sports (Kulesza, Grossbard, Kilmer, Copeland, & Larimer, 2014). This finding offers a different perspective on sports participation and highlights some of the barriers that may arise from it.

Qualitative studies provide a valuable way to examine the benefits of certain activities or programs. A 2014 qualitative study analyzing the positive and negative impact of an urban youth sport organization used interviews to collect information from 23 program participants of both genders. The findings provided further confirmation that urban youth sports programs are effective. "Helps kids stay on track. A number of participants discussed how being involved in TDP was a positive experience that kept them and other kids off the street and helped them stay on track personally and academically" (Bean, Whitley, & Gould, 2014, p. 5). Participants reported that they stayed out of trouble, found the program inclusive, and were able to maintain academic and personal goals. At-risk youth often have difficulty maintaining good grades and staying motivated to pursue rewarding careers. The study also offers suggestions for improving these kinds of programs, noting that interviews and surveys are excellent tools for information collection and lead to proper assessment, ensuring participants receive everything they need to continue benefiting from involvement.

At-risk youth unfortunately sometimes fall prey to outside influences. A 2012 study examined the reduction in serious crimes associated with at-risk youth participation in sports programs. "Results indicate that schools with higher proportions of sports participants report significantly fewer serious crimes (i.e., violent crimes) and suspensions occurring on school grounds" (Veliz & Shakib, 2012, p. 558). These kinds of findings further demonstrate the benefits of sports programs — not only in terms of improved academic and personal outcomes, but also in preventing serious criminal behavior. However, the study found no significant difference in minor crimes, suggesting that sports programs alone cannot offer complete deterrence across all forms of delinquency.

Social cognitive theory provides a deeper understanding of the various constructs of physical activity behavior in youth (Ramirez, Kulinna, & Cothran, 2012). The Health Belief Model aims to examine environmental influences with regard to the choices youth make to stay physically active or to avoid physical activity. Social cognitive theory, by contrast, aims to explore intrinsic motivation. As discussed in a 2012 article, certain constructs may help explain why sports programs have such a positive influence on youth, particularly at-risk youth. These constructs are outcome expectations, barriers, social support, goals, and self-efficacy. When youth witness positive outcomes from participating in junior golf programs and are able to meet their goals while gaining social support for their successes and improvements, they will feel increased motivation to continue.

Although exploration of social cognitive theory leads to further analysis of the motivations behind youth participation in sports programs, there must be instruments capable of measuring these constructs. A 2015 article aimed to use the Children's Sport Locus of Control Scale (CSLCS) to measure chance and environment within the external control dimension (Tsai & Hsieh, 2015). The study assessed the viability of the scale in relation to measuring children's sport locus of control. Its findings provide suggestions for the development of additional scales and affirm the usability of the CSLCS.

Conclusion

Tsai, J. & Hsieh, C. (2015). Development of the children's sport locus of control scale. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 43(2), 315–325.

Veliz, P. & Shakib, S. (2012). Interscholastic sports participation and school-based delinquency: Does participation in sport foster a positive high school environment? Sociological Spectrum, 32(6), 558–580.