Kublai Khan's Reforms and Legacy in Yuan Dynasty China

Introduction

Genghis Khan moved his troops into the quasi-Chinese, Chin-ruled north China in 1211, and by 1215 they had sacked the capital city. His son Ögedei vanquished all of North China by 1234 and ruled it from 1229 to 1241. Genghis Khan's grandson, Kublai Khan, conquered the Chinese Southern Song in 1279, and all of China suddenly came under foreign rule (Johnson, 2014).

In 1271, Kublai Khan named his administration "Yuan," a word signifying "origin of the universe." The Yuan Dynasty in China lasted from 1279 to 1368. Kublai Khan followed a broad policy of Sinicization — that is, he adapted to the Chinese method of governing — and in portraits he resembles other Chinese rulers closely. Nevertheless, although he employed some Chinese in low-ranking government positions, he abolished the civil service examinations, preferred to use foreigners in his administration, and established separate laws for Mongols and for the Chinese. His capital, present-day Beijing, became a cosmopolitan and prosperous city (Johnson, 2014).

Kublai Khan conducted a population census that divided the people into four classes: Mongols; miscellaneous aliens (which included West Asian Muslims who performed important services for the Mongols); North Chinese known as Han people — those who had lived under the Chin state and their descendants, including Chinese, Jurchen, Khitans, and Koreans; and finally Southern Chinese, subjects of the Southern Song, whom the Mongols considered the least trustworthy. The Mongols could not have ruled China without the assistance of some Chinese elites, yet they remained reluctant to employ the Chinese — particularly the Southern Song — in their government. Although Genghis Khan had used some Chinese in low positions, he abolished the civil service examinations, kept separate laws for Mongols and for the Chinese, and preferred to use foreigners in his administration on the grounds that they would be more reliable than the Chinese (Johnson, 2014).

Effect of the Mongolian Empire on China Under Kublai Khan's Rule

The Mongolian Empire had a massive effect on China during Kublai Khan's (1215–1294) rule. During the thirteenth century, a period of Mongolian peace known as the Pax Mongolica brought economic growth, cultural diffusion, and significant developments (Bordo, Taylor, & Williamson, 2003). During this period, Khan opened China to great cultural diversity and promoted a variety of religions. Kublai Khan contributed to the rapid growth of China's economy by reviving and upgrading trading routes. His dynasty, the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), encouraged the advancement of Chinese literature and architectural style. In this way, Kublai Khan shaped China's economy, culture, political structure, literature, and architecture throughout his reign (Bordo, Taylor, & Williamson, 2003).

In various regions, Kublai Khan sought out specialists, craftsmen, and other skilled workers to fulfill civil roles. As a result, many people from diverse cultures migrated to Yuan. A prime example is Marco Polo's travels within Kublai Khan's domain, as described in his travel writings (Worthington, 2015). As Polo himself recorded, he served under Kublai Khan's court for many years, though historians question the reliability of his book, suggesting he exaggerated his experiences to attract a wider readership. Kublai Khan also promoted several religions, including Buddhism and Nestorian Christianity. He advanced Buddhism by appointing a Tibetan Lama, 'Phags-pa, as the leader of the Buddhist faith throughout all of Mongolia. This led to the construction of more Buddhist monasteries and the translation of Buddhist texts. According to The History of China, the number of monks in China grew to more than 500,000 during Mongol rule. The fact that Buddhism remains China's principal religion today reflects the depth of Kublai's influence. Ultimately, Kublai Khan significantly promoted cultural diffusion and supported multiple religions within China (Khan, 2017).

Economic and Trade Developments

Kublai Khan contributed to the growth of China's economy by reopening and improving trading routes. After conquering the Song Dynasty, he promoted agricultural and commercial growth within Yuan. As a result, he constructed and reopened trading routes that became vital to China's economy, contributing to the globalization of the Yuan Dynasty. For instance, he reopened and protected the Silk Road, which allowed western merchants to trade with China. This is documented in Italian merchant Francesco Pegolotti's (1310–1347) book La Pratica Della Mercatura (Khan, 2017). Pegolotti's extensive knowledge of the Silk Road illustrated how deeply connected China's trading system had become to western society. However, this connection was short-lived: in 1433 the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) isolated China and banned all foreign trade. Furthermore, Kublai Khan's extension of the Grand Canal system substantially benefited China's economy (Rodrigue, 2017). According to the Far Eastern Economic Review article "Arteries of the Empire," the Yuan Dynasty constructed a canal connecting the Yangtze River to Beijing for transporting grain. By the Ming Dynasty this system was carrying 400,000 tons of grain annually. It thus played a major role in agriculture, trade, and communication, remaining in uninterrupted use into modern China. Kublai Khan greatly improved China's economy, even if his gains were later undermined by China's isolation in 1433 (Rodrigue, 2017).

Kublai Khan also established a standardized and fixed tax system. The general population paid taxes directly to the government rather than to local collectors, and the government then paid the nobles. He demanded significant amounts of corvée labor — particularly for the construction of the Grand Canal to connect the Yangtze River with his capital and ensure adequate grain supply, as well as for the postal system and the construction of palaces and temples. He required people to contribute labor, horses, and supplies. At the same time, he issued decrees instructing officials not to be cruel, and he did not use corvée labor to drive farmers off their land in order to convert it into grazing territory (Johnson, 2014).

Conclusion

Kublai began to withdraw from the daily administration of his territory after his wife Chabi died in 1281 and his son died in 1285. He drank and ate to excess, becoming obese, and the gout that had troubled him for years grew worse. He died on February 18, 1294, at the age of 79, and was buried at the khans' secret burial site in Mongolia. Uprisings against Mongol rule began in earnest approximately thirty years after his death, and by 1368 the Yuan Dynasty had been overthrown (Bordo, Taylor, & Williamson, 2003).

Although China as a distinct cultural entity was recognized only gradually and incompletely in the European West, Chinese influences spread under the Yuan administration to various parts of Asia. Chinese medical treatments were translated into Persian, and Persian paintings of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries show numerous influences of Chinese art. Chinese-style administration and chancellery systems were adopted by other Mongol domains in Central Asia and the Middle East. It has even been proposed that the introduction of gunpowder and printing in Europe resulted from cultural diffusion from China, though a direct connection cannot be conclusively demonstrated (Khan, 2017).

Chinese civilization itself remained largely what it had been before the Yuan Dynasty. Neither the Chinese worldview nor China's position in the world changed radically. The changes and challenges China experienced under the Yuan, however, help explain many of the characteristic features of Ming Dynasty history. The end of Mongol control over China and the strong nationalism of the Ming administration also doomed the Catholic missions of the fourteenth century. The accounts of the Venetian traveler Marco Polo, on the other hand, opened for Europe an age of exploration and created a new vision of the world, with China as a central element (Khan, 2017).

Bibliography

Bordo, M., Taylor, A., & Williamson, J. (2003). Globalization in Historical Perspective. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Gulzhan, B., Tolkyn, M., & Raikhan, S. (2014). Kublai Khan's role in the cultural development of the Yuan Empire. Elsevier, 24–28.

Johnson, J. (2014). The Mongol Dynasty. Retrieved from Asia Society: https://asiasociety.org/education/mongol-dynasty

Khan, S. (2017, November 1). The Mongol Empire: Kublai Khan's impact on China. Retrieved from Owlcation: https://owlcation.com/humanities/The-Mongols-Kublai-Khans-Impact-on-China

Rodrigue, J. (2017). The Geography of Transport Systems: The Grand Canal. Retrieved from https://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch2en/conc2en/grandcanal.html

Worthington, D. (2015). The Travels of Marco Polo. Retrieved from http://www.newhistorian.com/travels-marco-polo/3107/

Zhou, L. (2016). The greatest palace that ever was: Chinese archaeologists find evidence of the fabled imperial home of Kublai Khan's Yuan Dynasty. Retrieved from http://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/1969971/greatest-palace-ever-was-chinese-archaeologists-find-evidence