Mental Rehearsal in Sports: Annotated Bibliography
This annotated bibliography examines five peer-reviewed studies on the use of mental rehearsal techniques in sports. The sources cover a range of athletic contexts—including modern pentathlon, gymnastics, basketball, figure skating, and elite sport in general—and investigate how visualization, imagery, goal setting, relaxation, and self-talk influence performance, self-efficacy, and competitive anxiety. The bibliography synthesizes key findings across studies and concludes with a summary emphasizing that mental rehearsal, when integrated with physical training, effectively reduces anxiety, builds confidence, and facilitates the learning of new motor skills for both novice and experienced athletes.
- Introduction to Mental Rehearsal in Sports: Overview of mental rehearsal as a sports topic
- Elite Modern Pentathletes and Mental Preparation: Qualitative study of pentathlete mental preparation strategies
- Mental and Physical Execution Duration in Elite Gymnastics: Comparing imagery duration to physical routine execution
- Combined Mental and Physical Training in Basketball: Audio-guided imagery improves basketball lay-up learning
- Mental Practice, Self-Efficacy, and Figure Skating Performance: Mental techniques boost figure skater confidence and performance
- Psychological Strategies and Competitive Anxiety in Elite Sport: Four strategies reduce competitive anxiety in elite performers
- Summary and Implications for Coaches and Sport Psychologists: Synthesis urging combined mental and physical training
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What makes this paper effective
- Each annotation follows a consistent structure: purpose, method, results, and implications — making comparisons across studies straightforward for the reader.
- The summary section synthesizes findings across all five sources rather than simply repeating them, demonstrating higher-order analytical thinking.
- Statistical results are reported accurately and in context, lending credibility to the evaluation of each source's findings.
Key academic technique demonstrated
The paper demonstrates source evaluation within an annotated bibliography format. Rather than merely describing each study, the writer assesses methodological choices (e.g., sample size, data collection tools, study phases) and draws practical implications for sport psychologists and coaches. This critical stance — moving from "what the study did" to "why it matters" — is the defining skill of an effective annotated bibliography.
Structure breakdown
The paper is organized as five stand-alone annotations, each covering a separate study, followed by a synthesizing summary. Annotations move chronologically through research phases (pre-training to post-competition) and span sport contexts from pentathlon to figure skating. The summary brings the annotations together thematically, reinforcing the argument that combined mental and physical training outperforms physical training alone.
Introduction to Mental Rehearsal in Sports
Bertollo, M., Saltarelli, B., & Robazza, C. (2009). Mental preparation strategies of elite modern pentathletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10(2), 244–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2008.09.003
Elite Modern Pentathletes and Mental Preparation
This study examined the range of preparation strategies and coping responses employed by elite modern pentathletes. The authors sought to explore the athletes' mental preparation strategies and behaviors in the days before their main event and before, during, and after competition. This was a qualitative study that employed interviews for data collection. The sample consisted of 14 athletes (six women and eight men) aged between 21 and 33. The interviews were conducted during the competitive season, though not close to critical competitions. The interviews were semi-structured, face-to-face, individual sessions lasting between 60 and 90 minutes (Bertollo et al., 2009). Due to the interview duration, it was impossible to report all information obtained; the authors selected representative quotes related to the study. The information was grouped into six higher-order themes: attitudes during training, behaviors during training, behaviors outside training, mental practice, goal setting, and seeking optimal feelings.
Athletes perform various mental practices during training, before competitions, and after competitions to ensure they stay at their optimal level. These activities motivate them and teach them how to cope with anxiety and competition stress, enabling them to perform at their peak. Since the athletes had not received formal training in sport psychology, the pentathletes managed to employ different approaches for different purposes to suit their individual needs.
Bertollo et al. (2009) hope the study can help sport psychologists become better equipped to offer their services to athletes. Sport psychology consultants should observe an athlete's preparation strategies, coping responses, and sources of concern before offering suggestions. Differences in individual emotional and cognitive experiences affect performance before, during, and after competition. The study initiates discussion on the psychological preparation of top-level modern pentathletes. The results can be used to develop mental programs that athletes can use to strengthen their behaviors and thoughts before, during, and after competition.
Mental and Physical Execution Duration in Elite Gymnastics
Calmels, C., & Fournier, J. F. (2001). Duration of physical and mental execution of gymnastic routines. The Sport Psychologist, 15(2), 142–150.
The purpose of this study was to observe the mental practice employed by elite gymnasts by comparing the duration of their mental and actual executions of a floor movement. The authors did not formulate a hypothesis, as they wanted to gather information on the use of imagery by elite athletes who had mastered their skills (Calmels & Fournier, 2001). However, they hypothesized that if their results were confirmed, then an increase in the duration of some stages under mental conditions could be linked to the perceived difficulty of the gymnastics elements (Calmels & Fournier, 2001). The study used twelve elite female gymnasts aged between 13 and 30. Two conditions were assigned to the gymnasts: the first required them to execute their floor routine normally, and the second required them to rehearse the performance mentally. Each gymnast was filmed during both the mental and physical rehearsal conditions, and the procedure was repeated over three consecutive days.
The statistical results indicate that the duration of the physical routine was longer than the duration of the imagined routine for all seven performances executed by the gymnast (F(1, 11) = 55.62, p < .0001, ES = 1.91). Calmels and Fournier (2001) noted no difference between the duration of the mental rehearsal routine across the six stages in the three trials conducted. The same was observed for the physical routines, suggesting that using a single trial would have been sufficient to determine the similarity between mental and physical rehearsals. The use of imagery reassured and calmed the gymnasts and bolstered their self-confidence. The mental routine was shorter than the actual routine because the participants were not using it to perfect their skills but rather to review the integral components of the routine.
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