North American Architecture: Pre-Columbian to Federalist

Introduction: Architecture as Cultural Expression

The architecture of North America spans many centuries and many distinct periods. In the earliest times, buildings were constructed by Native Americans according to principles that reflected their cultures and religious beliefs. Later, after the coming of Europeans, architectural tastes reflected those prevailing in Europe, but always with an American flair. Among the Pre-Columbian peoples, those who lived in what is now Mexico and Central America tended to build massive monumental structures of masonry, while those in what is now the United States were largely known for the ceremonial earthen mounds that still dot the landscape across many states. Communities were built of durable materials in the Southwest, and many of the peoples further south built impressive cities and ceremonial centers. With the exception of the American pueblos, virtually all of these constructions were abandoned with the coming of Europeans.

In the future United States, the European colonists concentrated mostly on modest residential, civic, and religious structures. The scale of building expanded after the birth of the new nation as the country's population and wealth increased and greater resources could be devoted to architecture. In all cases, the purpose of architecture was to serve the needs of its builders and to reflect their values and aspirations.

Pre-Columbian Monuments and Cosmic Symbolism

The city of Teotihuacan, in the Valley of Mexico, served as a model for the architecture of later peoples, such as the Aztecs. Major features of the site were the enormous step-pyramids that functioned as living embodiments of the people's faith. The great stone Pyramid of the Sun marked the sacred center of the city; its structure and orientation marked the meeting point of the natural and supernatural worlds. In form it evoked the idea of a "sacred mountain," with distinct celestial, terrestrial, and underworld levels that, together with the four cardinal directions, brought the entire cosmos together at a single point.

The complex symbolism of these pyramids was also reflected in structures found far to the north, in what is now the United States. Huge earthen burial mounds marked the center of settlements, such as those at Hopewell. The sheer size of the mounds, and the riches they contained — pearl and shell beads, and beads and nuggets of copper, iron, silver, and gold — revealed a people concerned with maintaining the welfare of the living by honoring the dead and perpetuating their memory. Though much simpler in construction than the pyramids of Teotihuacan and devoid of stone representations of gods and sacrifice, these mounds served a similar purpose, marking the point of intersection between different worlds.

Native American Pueblos and Sacred Space

Still occupied today, the pueblos of the American Southwest represent yet another variant of traditional Native American architecture. Sets of individual houses joined together as one, they formed the nucleus of communal domestic and religious life. The San Juan Pueblo, built by the Tewa, mirrors larger ancient sites such as Chaco Canyon and Canyon de Chelly. Set against a backdrop of the four sacred mountains of the Tewa, the pueblo's architecturally created plaza forms the sacred center from which all points radiate, with a sipapu — an opening to the underworld — lying at the very center of the plaza.

Though built of brick or adobe, the pueblo complex, like the similar creations in Mexico and further east in the United States at Hopewell and related sites, mirrors the cosmic order. Daily life and the life of the sacred universe are one; there is no distinction between the temporal and the spiritual. This reflects a holistic Native American worldview in which architecture captures the soul of the people as it evokes the soul of all things.