Here, the research suggests that "cardiac depression may also cause fluid to back up into the pulmonary system, resulting in pulmonary edema" (Aucoin, 2011, p 12). Moreover, increasing releases of aldosterone can also cause the body to retain fluid and sodium which can lead to endothelial dysfunction and organ fibrosis (Hobbs & Boyle, 2010).
Other Systems

Along with other systems, there is an impact on the thyroid as well when examining the pathophysiology of congestive heart failure. According to the research, the "thyroid hormone (TH) has a fundamental role in cardiovascular homeostasis" from a pathophysiological perspective (Galli et al., 2012, p 155). When there are conditions ripe for congestive heart failure, there are notable reactions seen in the thyroid. In fact, Galli et al. (2010) assert that there is a "well-known but not yet well-understood relationship" between the thyroid and congestive heart failure (Galli et al., 2012, p 155). Continuing studies….

ibliography

Fenton, Drew Evan (2010) Myocardial Infarction. eMedicine. 24 Jun 2010) Online available at: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/759321-overview

Fletcher GF, alady G, lair SN, et al. Statement on exercise: benefits and recommendations for physical activity programs for all Americans: a statement for health professionals by the Committee on Exercise and Cardiac Rehabilitation of the Council on Clinical Cardiology, American Heart Association. Circulation. 1996;94:857 -- 862. [PubMed] cited in Williams, Paul T. 2010) Physical Fitness and Activity as Separate Heart Disease Risk Factors: A Meta-Analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001 May 33(5); 754.

Gehi, Anil K. Inducible ischemia and the risk of recurrent cardiovascular events in outpatients with stable coronary heart disease: The Heart and Soul Study. rch Intern Med. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2009 May 1. Published in final edited form as: Arch Intern Med. 2008 July 14; 168(13): 1423 -- 1428.

Ischemic Heart Disease (2010) Los Angeles Learning Center. Online available at: http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/heart-disease-ischemic.html

Javed, Fahad, et….

Pathophysiology of Pain
Pain is a physical manifestation of something being wrong within the body. Pain is an indicator of an injury or of a physical illness. Often, it is one of the first indicators that there is something wrong with the health of the patient and anyone experiencing pain should seek medical attention. Acute, chronic, and referred pain are three very different things but are often confused, even by medical experts.

Pathophysiology:

Acute pain tends to begin suddenly and is usually a sharp pain. It is considered a symptom of a disease or physical injury (Acute 2008). Examples of acute pain can include, but are no means limited to: surgery and recovery, broken bones, burns, cuts, contusions, and muscle injury. There is always a cause for acute pain, although the cause may or may not be serious and therefore it always requires investigation. ithin the body, the polymodal peripheral receptors create sensations….

Pathophysiology of Late Onset Alzheimer's Disease
The author provides a comprehensive overview of late-onset Alzheimer's disease, including discussions about what is generally known about the disease with regard to heritability, disease progression, and risk factors. Findings from relevant studies on the association of LOAD with genotypes, cellular processes, and patterns of brain deterioration are provided. Brief discussions of pharmacological treatments and future research are included.

Key words: Alzheimer's, late-onset

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia and it is both progressive and incurable. Early-onset Alzheimer's disease is considered to be an onset of the symptoms before the age of 65 years of age (Canu, et al., 2010). Compared to late onset AD patients, early onset AD patients show a more rapid cognitive and clinical decline, along with earlier impairment of a multidomain nature that includes language, executive functions, and visuospatial abilities, although memory deficits may be less severe (Canu, et….

Diagnostic Studies

In basic terms, medical and family histories act as the basis for CAD diagnosis. In this case, abnormal levels of blood proteins, glucose, cholesterol or fats are risk factors for CAD. Further, the risk of CAD is identified by recording electrical purses of the heart using an electrocardiogram. For purposes of indicating heart failure, a chest x-ray may be taken. Any injury in heart muscles can be identified through echocardiography. Narrowing or hardening of the arteries is identified by the use of computer tomography scans. Coronary angiography is yet another way of diagnosing whether the arteries are blocked and the extent of such blockage.

Treatment and Prognosis

Lifestyle and diet adjustments must be made for CAD patients (Marshall Cavendish Corporation 2007). In this case, patients could exercise regularly, stop smoking, reduce their intake of salt and eat low fat diets. To ensure that risk factors like diabetes, high cholesterol levels and….

Pathophysiology-Liver Disease
The case study is of a 66-year-old man who has been drinking and smoking daily for 30 years. He admits to smoking two packs of cigarette per day and to drinking three glasses of brown alcohol daily for 30 years. Currently his family describes his behavior as erratic; he gets frustrated easily and gets quite aggressive at times. He visited his family doctor after a recent episode of hematemesis and forgetfulness. The doctor diagnosed him with ascites, splenomegaly, and hemorrhoids, ammonia levels are elevated, which are all symptoms of cirrhosis of the liver, so he is scheduled for a liver biopsy.

Cirrhosis and Alcohol

Cirrhosis of the liver is where unhealthy tissues replace the normal healthy functional tissues in the liver. In many cases cirrhosis of the liver is caused by alcohol consumption over a long period of time, as in this case study. The liver slowly deteriorates and malfunctions, which….

There are two different kinds - those that cause blood between the brain and the skull, and those that actually cause blood inside the brain itself. Most hemorrhagic strokes have specific symptoms, including headaches. They can also cause vomiting and loss of consciousness because of increased intracranical pressure from the blood accumulation (Donnan, et al., 2008). Some of these kinds of strokes happen because of previous head injuries, but others occur in people who have no known head injuries and no known risk factors. These strokes are harder to treat than strokes that are ischemic in nature, but that does not mean that the prognosis for patients with these kinds of strokes is always a negative one.
Many people are able to recover from hemorrhagic strokes and avoid having another cerebrovascular accident in the future, but there is always increased risk after any stroke, whether it is hemorrhagic or ischemic.….

However, in cancer these cells grow out of control and mutate, causing disease. Some of the issues with the development of breast cancer have been linked to exposure to estrogen, but that does not always appear to be the case (Sariego, 2010). Other factors can also be problematic. The main issue with breast cancer is not what caused it but how to treat it and whether it is diagnosed quickly. Mammograms are still the standard to locate lumps that may or may not be breast cancer. When these lumps are suspect, a biopsy is often done in order to determine what the lump, or mass, actually is and whether there is cancer present. Biopsies are the best way to determine if there are cancerous cells, but some of the rarer types of breast cancer are still hard to diagnose and require other options (Gotzsche & Nielsen, 2011).
Once a diagnosis….

The implication of narrowing is that blood flow to the myocardium is impeded thus leading to the condition described as ischemic. Therefore, occurrence of this condition in the left ventricle is because of impeded oxygen blood flow rather than oxygen content per cubic millimeter of blood (Mann, 2010).
5. Draw a normal ECG wave pattern and show how it relates to the action potentials of cardiac muscle cells. What causes the delay between the P. wave and QS complex?

The delay between P. wave and QS complex is attributed to the pause that causes the transmission of electrical impulse from the atria to the ventricles to take longer than expected.

6. What is a ventricular ectopic or estrasystole, what area its effect on stroke volume, and what might cause an extrasystole?

Extrasystole refers to the additional beat, or contraction, which causes an interruption in the standard rhythm of the heart rate, which is….

2008). Indeed better screening is necessary due to the number of false-negatives from women with precancerous lesions among the most frequent reasons of medical malpractice in the United States (Steben, M. et al. 2007).
In the case of having a tissue sample to be tested, early stage cervical cancer can be differentiated from healthy cervical tissue by gene expression profile due to comparisons done with healthy and lymph node metastatic tissues which found certain genes upregulated and down regulated (Biewenga, P. et al. 2008). Early stage cervical cancers can be cured by radical surgery or radiotherapy with similar effectiveness (Biewenga, P. et al. 2008). Overall the treatment options for cervical cancer are based on whatever the outcome of clinical staging is and include surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and/or chemoradiotherapy (Ellenson, L.H. & Wu, T.C. 2004). More sophisticated methods such as the use of M imaging before, during and after radiation therapy….

hile there is no direct indication of exactly what information or perception caused the patient to make the decision to withdraw from medication, it is clear that the patient's delusional state has prevented her from properly weighing the implications of information, which would instead demonstrate to her the immediacy of the danger of infarction because of sudden withdrawal from a medication regimen.
According to the source provided by Klatt, the risk of myocardial infarction is increased by the implications of hypertension, indicating that withdraw from one's medication as in the case of the patient in our case study can lead to the pairing of "increased intraventricular pressure and myocardial contraction." (Klatt, 1) These, in turn, can lead to the type of constricted bloodflow that is likely to invoke heart failure. Therefore, in the case study at hand, the patient is categorically at a high risk for fatality relative to her….

Patients with superficial ulcers should take antibiotics at intervals for treatment (McCance & Huether, 2010).
Difference in malignant melanoma and other skin lesions

There some characteristic which helps in differentiating malignant melanoma and other skin lesions.

i. Border; unlike other skin lesions malignant melanoma, have irregular borders. In case of irregular or distinct borders a practitioner should understand that the disease is not a normal skin lesion.

ii. Color; the color of malignant melanoma differs forms other skin lesions. When suffering from malignant melanoma a person will have a mixture of light, dark and medium areas of different colors. Unlike other skin lesions which have consistent color malignant melanoma color is inconsistent.

iii. Diameter; when suffering from malignant melanoma, an individual will have moles or pigmented areas of the skin which will be large than normal. Evaluations need to be carried on for moles larger than five to six millimeters because normal skin lesions….

Pathophysiology of Asthma
Asthma is a common respiratory disease believed to be influenced or determined by genetic and environmental factors, such as allergens and respiratory viruses (Chung & Adcock, 2001). Asthma can be acute, chronic or fatal. It is acute when it is severe and sudden (Hadjlladis, 2014), chronic when it develops for a long period of time, and fatal, when it leads to death. An acute first asthmatic attack can lead to chronic asthma if it is not treated (Hadjilladis).

Mechanisms

During an attack, changes occur in the airways, consisting in chronic inflammation and altered matrix proteins, which account for the narrowing of the airway and increased responsiveness of the bronchial tubes (Chung & Adcock, 2001). Many inflammatory mediators, like histamine and cysteinyl-lekotrienes, are released by inflammatory mediators. These trigger the tightening of the brochial tubes, production of mucus and plasma exudation and brochial hyp0er-responsiveness. T-helper 2-derived cytokines like interleukin-4 become overactive.….

Stroke Case Study
Pathophysiology:

In the present case study, the patient is a 61-year-old male named Mr. Black. Mr. Black has presented at the Emergency Room with symptoms of stroke. Further investigation revealed a Middle Cerebral Artery (MCA) distribution stroke with substantially impacted physical function on the left side of his body. The patient also showed signs of impeded speech and reasoning abilities. According to Slater (2013), "middle cerebral artery stroke describes the sudden onset of focal neurologic deficit resulting from brain infarction or ischemia in the territory supplied by the middle cerebral artery (MCA)." (Slater, p. 1) Evidence suggests that the major contributor the Mr. Black's condition has been his chronic hypertension. hereas many of his vital signs indicate relatively normal functionality at the time leading up to his episode, Mr. Black's blood pressure is registered at a decidedly hypertensive rate of 150/80. At 90 beats per minute, Mr. Black's pulse….

Pathophysiology of Diabetes Mellitus II
The patient is a male 45 years of age who has been diagnosed with Metabolic Syndrome many years ago but most recently has been diagnosed with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. The patient presents expressing concerns that he may have had high blood sugars prior to the recent diagnosis. It is necessary to explain to the patient that Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus is comprised by a range of dysfunctions "characterized by hyperglycemia and resulting from the combination of resistance to insulin action, inadequate insulin secretion and excessive or inappropriate glucagon secretion." (Khardoni, 2014, p. 1)

Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus is reported to be a "heterogeneous disorder with varying prevalence among different ethnic groups." (Death to Diabetes, 2014, p. 1) The primary events of DM are held to be "an initial insensitivity of insulin resulting in peripheral insulin resistance; and later on, relative insulin deficiency." (Death to Diabetes,….