In addition, being able to localize sounds (friend or foe) would be essential and usually those sounds occur under 20,000 Hz (rustling of leaves, breaking of branches, etc.) (pp. 193-4).
2. The text explains how we might distinguish loudness for low-frequency sounds. How might we distinguish loudness for a high-frequency tone?
Loudness is a sensation that is related to amplitude (strength of frequency). We distinguish loudness based on many factors; speed of the sound, quality of the sound, etc. The higher the amplitude, the louder something appears -- and in higher frequency tones, the amplitude is faster and the peaks more robust, so the sound appears to be much louder than the identical "volume" but a lower frequency (p. 190).
3. How could you determine whether hypnosis releases endorphins?
Endorphins are released under certain circumstances or situations and are part of the brains protective, pain relief or pleasure centers. Using conditioning, it would be theoretically possible to induce endorphin production through hypnosis by suggesting some of the actions and/or activities that produce the chemical naturally (roller coaster ride, sexual activity, thrilling movies or scenes). It is typically not possible to measure the amount of endorphins within the human brain without harming the person, but one could monitor endorphins in the bloodstream before, during, and after a hypnosis setting. Additionally, using MRI and CRT imaging technology, the subject's brain could be scanned at different times during the session to study the ebb and flow of endorphins as they interact with human brain cells (pp. 211-14).
4. In the English language, the letter t has no meaning out of context. Its meaning depends on its relationship to other letters....
Indeed, even a word, such as to, has little meaning except in its connection to other words. So is language a labeled-line system or an across-fiber pattern system?
In a sensory system a labeled-line receptor responds to a limited range of stimuli, and the meaning is dependent upon which neurons are active. In an across-fiber pattern, each receptor responds to wider ranges of stimuli, and the response of an individual axon is dependent on other axons. Thus, language is likely an across-pattern system because the information is dependent on a host of other variables -- in our case, the connection to other words (stimuli) and meanings (p. 210).
5. Suppose a chemist synthesizes a new chemical that turns out to have an odor. Presumably, we do not have a specialized receptor for that chemical. Explain how our receptors detect it.
Smell is a chemical sense that is detected from chemoreceptors. When the odor hits the chemoreceptors in the nose, they pass on electrical impulses to the brain, which are interpreted and perceived. If this is a new smell, then the brain must define it from what most researchers say are about seven primary odors (musky, putrid, pungent, camphoraceous, ethereal, floral, or minty). It is likely that the new chemical will be some combination of the 7, or even if not exact, since perceptions vary, it would provide a "fix" or similar perception so that the brain can decode the odor. Smell also triggers memory, and the new smell might also trigger certain flashbacks to other odors from the individual's past (pp. 217-18).
Source:
Kalat, J. (2010). Biological Psychology, 11th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Cenage
Sage Publications. Retrieved from: http://dualibra.com/wp-content / uploads/2012/12/BiologPsych.pdf
