Analyzing the Study Method

¶ … data collection and the sources to be utilized for this project. The highlighted gaps in knowledge will be investigated with the help of two research methods. The research methods have been chosen on the basis that they have the best chance of answering the research questions. Lastly, the procedures that will be utilized to analyse the results and also the limitations of the methods will be highlighted. Ethical considerations will also be given (Frandsen & Johansen, 2010).

There is a need for a comprehensive evaluation in order to capture the sophisticated processes of public relations crisis communication and also to provide a broader perspective on the matter in addition to helping with the investigation of the related issues. A mixed-method study approach (a mix of quantitative and qualitative study methodologies) will be employed for the purposes of providing an overview of the subject matter and also to help provide data for the research questions. The collection of both quantitative and qualitative data will provide comprehensive information to help answer the research questions. Gathering quantitative data will help to provide an overview of crisis communication and also help in providing important data for answering the five minor research questions on methodological trends in past studies, theoretical models, the different kinds of emergency communication, use of theories and the number of publications. The qualitative data will help to provide insight into the viewpoints and perspectives of experts in the field of communication with regards to research questions on the influence of culture on emergency/crisis communication, the application of different crisis communication strategies in various settings, and stakeholder consideration in those kinds of communications. Furthermore, the gathering of qualitative data will also provide broader perspectives on the work reality of PR (public relation) practitioners and the importance of academic studies for their practice. The mixed method research approach will be utilized for its ability to complement data gathered by one research method using another; this will allow the gathering of more comprehensive information (Collis & Hussey, 2003; Reinard, 2001).

The mixed method approach will in summary help provide a deeper understanding of "crisis communications" and also increase the validity and relevance of the results of the research. The 2 main data collection methods that will be utilized are in-depth interviews and content analysis (Falkenheimer & Heide, 2010).

1.2. Participants

Purposive sampling will be employed since the targeted participants fit not only the criteria of inclusion for the research but that they had also been involved in previous crisis management and communication initiatives (Forbes-Biggs, 2010). The targeted participants from each site will be invited to join specific focus groups. The above mentioned inclusion criteria for the research project includes the following conditions: the participants should be an adult (above eighteen years of age); he or she should have been involved in crisis management and communication teams in the past. According to Patton (1990) purposive sampling enables subjects to be chosen if they have certain qualities that the researcher is looking for. Patton further states that purposive sampling is frequently used in conducting qualitative research. In our case, the targeted individuals should fit the above mentioned conditions in the inclusion criteria so as to be selected for the study. The inclusion criterion distinguishes the chosen individuals from other members of the community. Another researcher Trochim (2006) believes that purposive sampling is a type of non-probability sampling, since it does not involve random selection of individuals. Thus, purposive sampling, allows us to exclude those who are not relevant to the research from participating in the study.

According to Trochim (2006) purposive sampling is done with a purpose -- in that it helps researchers to include only a very specific kind of participant (only those who have participated in crisis management either as affected individuals or as team members in the crisis management response initiative). Similarly, Greeff (2007:299) explains that the participants in purposive sampling are selected because they have particular similar characteristics and also based on the fact that they can relate to the subject to be discussed in the focus group. The individuals that will be chosen for this research study will be included because they meet the condition of either having been crisis management officials or members of the affected communities and that their participation in crisis management made them aware of the communication flow.

A provisional list of about thirty possible interview participants will be drawn up. The project team will then initiate communications with each of the individuals on the list to request for an interview either physically, or through mobile phones or via video conferencing. Some interviewees will also be selected for the purposes of answering survey questions which will be emailed to them. In instances where one or more of the participants is unreachable or declines to participate in the study, more participants will be recruited to replace them. The replacement participants will be selected using purposive sampling and the inclusion criteria highlighted above. The identities of the participants will be kept confidential so as to encourage participants to encourage frank opinions.

1.3. Data collection

1.3.1. Content Analysis

Content analysis has been defined as an adaptable quantitative research instrument that can be used for the investigation/analysis of texts in both visual and printed formats. The content is first quantified in an organized and repeatable manner utilizing preconceived categories. The two major characteristics of content analysis are systematic and objective. Its systematic nature allows the categorization of texts and other material into predetermined classes minimizing the possibility of bias. The sequential application of rules in the analysis procedure helps to guarantee consistency. Thus, anyone who wants to do content analysis on the same material should come up with the same results. According to researcher Bryman (2008), the coding procedure is a crucial part of the process of content analysis. To ensure that proper coding processes are utilized, clear and accurate coding guidelines should be employed and the categories to be used in classification should not only cover all possible scenarios but also not overlap; these facets are important when devising a coding scheme. To determine the challenges and to guarantee the reliability of coding intra and inter-coder reliability ought to be tested after designing the coding scheme (Bryman, 2008).

Despite its many advantages, content analysis, similar to other research methods has several limitations. First of all, texts to be used for content analysis have to be evaluated with respect to their credibility, representativeness, and authenticity, since the findings of a content analysis will only be as good as the texts utilized. Secondly, the emphasis on a content analysis process can perhaps merely lean on what can be measured instead of theoretically important or significant and relevant input (Bryman, 2008; Collis & Hussey, 2003).

1.3.2. Procedure of Content Analysis

General data on crisis communication studies conducted in New Zealand and Australia will be gathered through content analysis. A total of 33 articles on crisis communication published in several different formats/mediums including practice and academic publications in both countries, over the last decade, will be collected through a computer database search utilizing the keyword "crisis." The mediums utilized include the top PR (public relations) and communication websites and journals such as the Prism journal, the APPRJ (Asia Pacific Public Relations Journal), the CJNZ (Communication Journal of New Zealand) and the AJC (Australian Journal of Communication). Furthermore, case studies from two websites; the PRINZ (Public Relations Institute of New Zealand) website and the PRIA (Public Relations Institute of Australia) website in addition to conference papers from ANZCA (Australian and New Zealand Communication Association) will be analyzed. The mediums have been chosen since they are thought to closely reflect the situation of crisis communication and related issues in both countries. The mediums have also been chosen because they are the most widely available sources. To view the case studies in the PRINZ and PRIA websites, for instance, one has to simply sign up for membership and get permission from the institutes' current executive directors (Falkenheimer & Heide, 2010; Fediuk, Coombs & Botero, 2010).

If any of the communication journals do not have sufficient information or if we cannot access/locate journals on a subject area that we are dealing with in this research, a general database search will also be conducted. The general database search will be conducted through Ebsco, which has about 6800 peer-reviewed journals on communications, 1300 journals on business, 440 journals on communication and Mass Media, 2000 journals on applied sciences, 800 journals on philosophy and religion, 400 journals on behavioural sciences, 800 on political sciences and hundreds of other relevant journals. The keywords "disaster communication," "disaster" and "crisis" will be used to search the database for peer-reviewed articles. Moreover, only publications released between 2004 and 2015 will be utilized for the search. Publications older than 2004 will be ignored as information therein may have become obsolete given the strides in crisis communication scenario (Fediuk et al., 2010; Bryman, 2008).

1.3.3. Interviews

In-depth interviews will be utilized to investigate specific issues in crisis communication from the practitioners' perspective. The benefit of utilizing in-depth interviews is that it helps gather subjective data from the interviewees and to capture data on the interviewees' beliefs, attitudes, values and feelings (Stewart, 2002). Interviews are qualitative, as they focus more on the interviewees' viewpoint that will help address our wider concerns. Interviews are frequently utilized in qualitative studies and are often easy to carry out, even though the transcription process and the analysis of the results can consume a lot of time. Some researchers suggest that when interviewees are getting sidetracked or are rambling in an interview it should be encouraged as it allows the interviewer to get insight into the thought processes of the participant (Bryman, 2008). The interviewer can then alter or deviate from the predetermined set of questions and ask new questions based on the responses of the interviewee, the interviewer can also ask follow-up questions based on the responses of the interviewees. Qualitative interviewing will help provide detailed responses which will hopefully reflect the interviewees' point of reference and his or her opinion. The interviews will be in a semi-structured format since this will give the interviewee the freedom to reply in the manner he or she deems fit. Since our investigation concentrate on specific issues, semi-structuring the interviews will help provide more relevant answers (Bryman, 2008).

1.3.4. Interview Procedure

Six in-depth and semi-structured interviews will be conducted with PR practitioners to help get deeper insight into cultural factors, factors affecting stakeholders and the possible application of disaster/crisis communication strategies. A group of questions will be utilized to increase understanding on the relevance of academic literature and also the crisis work area. As mentioned earlier, the participants will be chosen via purposive sampling in which the criteria for selection include the condition that the participant should have had an experience in crisis communication, availability and position. The participants will be interviewed through contact persons from the institutes of public relations. The membership of the participants in public relations institutes will increase the validity of the findings (Frandsen & Johansen, 2010; Falkenheimer & Heide, 2010).

Interviews encompass closed and open-ended questions. Leading questions will be utilized to gather background information. Semi-structured questions, on the other hand, will be utilized to increase understanding of the subject matter and to investigate certain dimensions of crisis communication. All the participants will be asked the same line of questions, even though additional sub-questions (interpreting, probing, specifying and follow-up) may vary for different participants. The interview schedule will be segmented into five parts: background data; strategy; culture; relevance of academic research; and stakeholders (Trochim, 2006; Greeff, 2007).

Information on what the research is all about, consent forms, and interview questions will be sent to the interviewees a week in advance to give time for preparation. The duration of interviews will be about 30 to 35 minutes. Even though qualitative interviews are usually conducted in a one-on-one setting, some of the interviews will be conducted through telephone interviews for reasons of accessibility and convenience. All interviews will however be recorded and later transcribed and a summary sent to the interviewee to countercheck for accuracy (Stewart, 2002; Greeff, 2007).

1.3.5. Focus groups

Focus group interviews utilize group interactions to collect research data and other pertinent information. According to Krueger (1988:18), focus groups are carefully structured and controlled discussions modelled to gather viewpoints on a predetermined area of interest in a non-formal environment. For focus group interview to be effective in gathering information the interviewer must properly take control of the discussions and supply the correct questions (Morgan & Krueger, 1993). Researchers Struwig and Stead (2007:99) had similar arguments in their work, arguing that carefully structured discussions (focus groups) help to gather desired information in an amicable setting.

The questions will be asked in the following sequence. First the interview will start with general questions and then slowly progress to more specific questions that would help provide desired information in the area of interest (Struwig and Stead, 2007). Focus groups enable researchers to gather more information from the participants and enable the participants to share specific reactions, experiences, and attitudes towards the discussions elicited by the questions posed by the interviewer (Neuman, 2006).

1.4. Validity and credibility

To guarantee the objectivity of the research a research assistant and an external facilitator will be recruited for the study. During the in-depth semi-structured interviews, the research assistant will conduct the actual interview even though the interview questions will have set by the researchers. Besides objectivity, other issues that will surround the results such as validity and credibility will also be considered (Neuman, 2006).

According to authors Leedy and Ormrod in their 2001 work, reliability helps determine whether a research tool or methodology for our case will furnish the same findings if the variables being investigated have not changed in any way. For our research project, reliability will be guaranteed by the fact that our semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions will be strictly guided by the academic literature on crisis communications and related discussions meaning that the concepts under discussion will be relevant to the subject matter. Moreover, another factor that will ensure the reliability of our findings will be the fact that all participants have some experience in the subject matter (crisis communications and management strategies).

To ensure validity, the procedure or methodology of the research and the findings should allow the researcher to develop accurate conclusions on the research questions (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001). To ensure the validity of our research, we will make use of an external facilitator to lead the discussions for the focus groups. The same questions will also be asked of each of the focus groups to ensure consistency. The facilitator will also be encouraged to give a chance to every participant in the focus group to express frank opinions on every question. Lastly, the principles and categories found in the literature will guide us in coming up with the research questions. This will help to make sure that the research objectives and goals can be traced back to the literature.

1.5. Data analysis

1.5.1. Content Analysis

Results of a study by Seon-Kyoung and I-Huei in 2010 on crisis communication will be employed as a guideline for content analysis. The researchers employed content analysis to investigate the text in two major PR journals -- the Journal of Public Relations Research and the Public Relations Review. They focused on material that was published between 1975 and 2006. They used the same codes, units and research questions in analyzing material from the two journals to achieve consistent results. One of the articles that will be examined utilizing coding instruments is the unit of analysis. It consists of categories that code the following variables: review of case studies, research subjects, methodology review, theoretical application and general frequency among others.

First Variable -- quantity of Publications

The number of publications (general frequency) of crisis communication research per annum will be determined.

Second Variable -- Theoretical application

Journals will be evaluated by taking into account the materials' theoretical orientation and through the utilization of research hypotheses and questions. According to researchers Seon-Kyoung and I-Huei in 2010, research articles can be categorized as "theoretical" if it does mention specific theories or applies specific theories, even in cases whereby there is no theoretical linkage that is explicitly discernible the article can still be categorized as "theoretical." This kind of categorization is important for categorization purposes. The research articles will also be investigated to check for relevance by comparing research hypotheses and questions with the content. Coding categories will be structured as follows: only hypotheses, only research questions, both research hypotheses and questions and no research questions or hypotheses (Frandsen & Johansen, 2010; Falkenheimer & Heide, 2010).