Aviation Accident Investigation

Summary

Over the past few years, the aviation sector has experienced tremendous growth and development due to growth in air traffic. Despite the growth and development of this industry, safety concerns continue to increase even as technological developments are adopted to improve aviation safety. One of the major areas in aviation safety that has been characterized by numerous concerns include aviation accident investigation. Aviation accident investigation plays a crucial role in aviation safety since it provides recommendations that are utilized to prevent future aviation accidents resulting in improved safety.
Aviation accident investigations have been characterized by some challenges that have hindered the effectiveness of the recommendations in preventing future reoccurrences of aviation accidents under similar circumstances. Even though the current state and strategies employed in aviation accident investigations are relatively effective, the process is characterized by some challenges that necessitate improvements. Some of these challenges include involvement of different stakeholders with differing interests, complexities in the investigation process, interference from external forces, and generation of conflicting reports and opinions. Due to these challenges and complexities, the investigation process has been slow.
The most suitable and effective approach toward improving aviation accident investigation is combining independent investigations with structured approaches for aviation accident investigation. The combination of these two techniques helps to improve efficiency and effectiveness of the investigation process by eliminating complexities and reducing uncertainties. Through this process, the combination of the techniques helps aviation accident investigators to determine the root cause of an accident and develop suitable recommendations to prevent future reoccurrences under similar circumstances.
Chapter 1 - Introduction
The aviation industry has experienced tremendous growth and development in the recent past given the growth in air traffic. According to Milosovski (2008), by the start of the 21st Century, airlines across the globe operate over 22 million passengers every year. These airlines transport more than one billion passengers worldwide, which demonstrates the significant role air traffic continues to play in modern transportation. Due to the growth of this industry, air traffic has emerged as a prevalent means for transporting passengers and cargo over long distances to an extent that it has exceeded road and marine traffic.
Even though air traffic has significantly increased in recent decades, safety concerns have also increased given that aircrafts usually navigate complex terrain. Aircraft usually fly across oceans, huge ice wastelands, huge deserts, and complex desolate regions. The complex terrain increases safety issues because of the adverse conditions. Additionally, there have been increased cases of human errors, unprecedented events, and equipment malfunctions. Drury (2000) states that human factors still account for a significant percentage of aviation mishaps. It is estimated that nearly 20% of aviation accidents or mishaps are brought by human factors, particularly in aircraft maintenance. Xavier (2005) argues that while aircraft maintenance programs have been established and improved from time to time, they are still characterized by numerous inconsistencies that make them ineffective in preventing aviation accidents or mishaps. These factors imply that aviation accidents still take place despite measures undertaken to enhance aviation safety. Even though aviation accidents are increasingly rare, they are usually devastating when they occur. Milosovski (2008) states that there have been more than 1600 aviation accidents that resulted in 64,000 deaths over the past five decades worldwide, which shows that air traffic is still imperfect.
Since aviation accidents still take place, one of the fields in the aviation industry that has continued to develop in recent years is aviation accident investigation. These investigations are usually carried out to help determine the causes of the accident and to promote the establishment of suitable measures to prevent similar incidents under similar circumstances. However, aviation accident investigations have been characterized by numerous challenges. These challenges have compromised the capability of the investigations to achieve their main goal/objective i.e. preventing future reoccurrences of accidents under related circumstances. Therefore, aviation accident investigation ought to be improved through addressing these challenges to help establish strategies and measures that prevent future reoccurrences.
1.1 Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to explore the current challenges in aviation accident investigation and recommend strategies for improving the process. This exploration is conducted on the basis that aviation accident investigation requires improvement in order to enhance aviation safety. Therefore, through identifying these challenges, effective measures for preventing future reoccurrences would be established and aviation safety enhanced.
1.2 Significance of the Problem
As previously indicated, aviation accident investigation has been characterized by numerous challenges that comprise its effectiveness in enhancing aviation safety. In light of the purpose of this study, this research will help enhance understanding of the major challenges that characterize aviation accident investigation. Through improving understanding of these challenges, the study will also contribute towards enhanced aviation safety. The study seeks to provide recommendations on measures that can be used by relevant aviation professionals to improve aviation safety.
1.3 Problem Statement
The main goal of aviation accident investigation is to prevent accidents and incidents in the future without apportioning liability or blame (Balcerzak, 2017). Aviation accident investigation is usually a complex process since its both an art and a science (Federal Aviation Administration, n.d.). Some of the scientific processes involved in aviation accident investigations include laboratory testing of materials, sample evaluation, and failure modes. Over the past few years, numerous measures and strategies have been established to help enhance aviation safety and accident investigations. These measures have focused on addressing the scientific aspects of accident investigation as well as addressing human factors that cause these accidents or incidents.
However, aviation accident investigation is still characterized by numerous challenges that hinder its effectiveness in promoting aviation safety. McCain (1997) states that accident investigations and execution of successive safety recommendations in the aviation industry have been criticized for being bureaucratic and slow. Therefore, there is need to address these challenges and speed in aviation accident investigation.
1.3 Research Questions
To achieve the purpose of the study, the researcher has identified two research questions to guide the research. The research questions, which have been identified based on the problem statement and background information are…
1. What is the state of the current measures and strategies employed in aviation accident investigation?
2. How can the current challenges and complexities in aviation accident investigation be improved?
Chapter 2 – Literature Review
The issue of aviation accident investigation has been the subject of numerous studies, particularly in aviation safety and aircraft maintenance. This chapter reviews some of the existing studies that have been carried out on this issue. The review provides background information and understanding of the topic as well as any existing gaps in literature.
2.1 Aviation Accidents
Boyd & Stolzer (2015) conducted a study in which they examined the causes and trends in aviation accidents that are related to aircraft maintenance. To achieve the purpose of their study, these researchers examined aviation accident data that was published by the National Transportation Safety Board in 2014 for accidents between 1989 and 2013. Following the review, the study established that the accident rate for general aviation is still very high. The high rate of these accidents is attributable to combination of pilot-focused errors (human factors) and aircraft maintenance errors. This study highlights the role that human errors or factors play in aviation accidents in the modern aviation industry.
In an earlier study, Shappell & Wiegmann (1997) established that human errors continue to be a major factor in a huge number of aviation accidents. Shappell & Wiegmann (1997) state that human error accounts for a significant number of occupational accidents and nearly 80% of accidents in civil and military aviation. As a result, most of the analysis of post-accident data in the aviation industry in recent years focuses on examining the causal role of human errors in these incidents.
According to Singer (2002), the fatal accident rate in commercial aviation has remained relatively static since the 1980s. While this rate was initially considered insignificant, it has assumed greater significance because of the growth of air transportation and commercial aviation in the 21st Century. In light of this growth, a flat fatal accident rate in commercial aviation traffic in today’s aviation industry is considered significantly high and a major issue of concern. As a result, many organizations and relevant stakeholders in the aviation industry have undertaken various measures to help reduce accident rates in air traffic. Singer (2002) contends that new safety programs have become more prevalent and significant in the modern aviation industry. Some of these programs established by the Federal Aviation Administration and the National Transportation Safety Board include Safety Action Partnership Program (ASAP) and Flight Operations Quality Assurance Program (FOQA).
Oster Jr., Strong & Zorn (2013) provide a different perspective of the rate of aviation accidents in today’s aviation industry. They contend that scheduled passenger airline service has become more safe given the reduction in the number of aviation accidents in recent years. The decline in aviation accidents is evident in recent data on aviation safety. For example, 2011 is regarded as the safest year in the global aviation industry since there was only one passenger fatality per 7.1 million air travelers (Oster Jr., Strong & Zorn, 2013). In 2011, the International Air Transport Association reported that there was only one accident in every 1.6 million flights across the globe, which represented a 42% aviation safety improvement since 2000. The improvement in aviation safety is attributable to a variety of factors such as technological improvements, enhancement in flight data recorders, and improved cockpit voice recorders.
Fultz & Ashley (2016) contend that weather-related factors account for a significant portion of modern aviation accidents in the United States. Regardless of the numerous developments in the aviation industry, weather remains a major concern in this sector and contributes to a huge number of general or private and non-commercial aviation accidents. Based on recent statistics and trends, 35% of fatal general aviation accidents are caused by weather-related factors while 60% of these accidents take place amidst instrument meteorological conditions. The impact of weather-related factors in aviation accidents is attributable to the complex relationship between weather and aviation. The complex relationship implies that modern technological advancements in aviation industry are still inadequate to address weather-related factors that cause most aviation accidents.
2.2 Aviation Accident Investigations
While the rate of aviation accidents has significantly reduced in recent years, aviation accident investigation is still an evolving process. According to McCain (1997), aviation accident investigations have been criticized for being slow and bureaucratic. These criticisms are partly attributable to the fact that the implementation of safety recommendations has been increasingly slow despite its significance in helping prevent future reoccurrences of aviation accidents. Consequently, McCain (1997) contends that there is need for improvements in aviation accident investigation processes. One of the recommended measures toward enhancing aviation accident investigation is improved collaboration between the relevant stakeholders, particularly FAA and NTSB in relation to aviation safety. Secondly, industry specialists and experts should work in collaboration with these agencies and private aviation organizations to develop and implement safety recommendations. Third, there is need for better management of available resources to aid and enhance aviation accident investigations.
Stoop & Kahan (2005) provide a different perspective regarding enhancing aviation accident investigation in modern global air traffic. Through their analysis on the safest way for air transportation, these researchers contend that independent investigation of aviation accidents/incidents is a valuable tool toward enhancing the effectiveness of the process and overall aviation safety. They contend that adopting independent investigation would help improve aviation accident investigation through identifying the series of events that offer satisfactory explanation of the accident. The resultant information is in turn utilized to develop a series of recommendations that in turn help to prevent future reoccurrences. Independent investigations are considered valuable tools for enhancing aviation accident investigation since they are free from external interference that could comprise findings and recommendations. Stoop & Kahan (2005) seemingly suggest that ineffectiveness and current challenges in aviation accident investigation is attributable to lack of independent investigations and interferences from external forces, which compromises findings and recommendations. Therefore, independent investigations help to enhance the process by ensuring that the process is free from state interference and other external factors or stakeholders.
Coury et al. (2008) seemingly concurs with Stoop & Kahan (2005) by arguing that major aviation investigations carried out by NTSB tend to be characterized by uncertainties. These uncertainties surround the cause of the accidents, complexities in channels of inquiry, and lack of a proper solution path. Additionally, Coury et al. (2008) state that the involvement of multiple stakeholders in this process contributes to numerous complexities and uncertainties in the investigation process. While the involvement of multiple stakeholders is crucial towards effective aviation accident investigations, these stakeholders sometime interfere with the investigation process and make it difficult to generate appropriate findings and make suitable recommendations. Therefore, Coury et al. (2008) state that structured approaches to aviation accident investigation with clear responsibilities and tasks for the various stakeholders should be designed and used to enhance the effectiveness of this processes. Structured approaches provide a suitable framework with which the role of every stakeholder is clearly defined, which prevents interference and enhances the investigation process.
The case for independent investigations in the aviation industry is also supported by Macrae & Vincent (2014) who sought to examine how safety investigation in healthcare can be enhanced through lessons from investigations in industries like aviation. The study states that safety-critical industries like aviation stand to benefit from independent investigations. Like shipping and railway industries, aviation accident investigation can be improved by established independent and permanently staffed organizations. These organizations should be mandated with the task of investigating major failures and serious safety risks in the aviation sector. Through these organization, investigation of aviation accidents is conducted by independent investigations who also coordinate all major safety investigations and issues within the sector. The independence of investigations of aviation accidents is critical toward their effectiveness because any interference and compromise in the investigation process yields poor results and recommendations for preventing future reoccurrences. Given their independence, these investigations improve the effectiveness of the process by examining all aspects contributing to the accident regardless of whether they are attributable to human, organizational or regulatory factors or issues.
Balcerzak (2017) provide a different perspective on this issue by arguing that aviation accident investigations in today’s aviation sector is characterized by conflicts of interest. The researcher contends that numerous stakeholders have different interests, which sometime compromise the process through interfering with crucial data or information. Therefore, the study recommends that aviation accident investigation can be improved through proper and safe handling of related data as well as without victimization of those who provide it. Balcerzak (2017) also suggests that regulatory changes should be made to promote collaboration between the different stakeholders in the investigation process.
Chapter 3 – Research Methodology
The identification of a suitable research design and process is critical toward answering the research question and achieving the purposes of this study. This segment provides a discussion of the research methodology and approach that will be utilized to examine this topic. This chapter includes various segments including research design, data collection instruments, and data analysis process.
3.1 Research Design
The three most commonly used research designs include qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-methods research. These approaches differ in their processes and suitability to a study based on the phenomenon under investigation. As previously indicated, the purpose of this study is to to explore the current challenges in aviation accident investigation and recommend strategies for improving the process. Therefore, the nature of the phenomenon under investigation is exploratory in nature. This implies that a suitable research methodology to help achieve the purpose of the study is one that supports exploration of the phenomenon under investigation or research issue.
Qualitative research approach will be utilized to conduct this study since the research issue is exploratory in nature. According to Creswell (2014), qualitative research approaches are suitable for research issues that are descriptive, explanatory or exploratory. Qualitative research methodology is used to examine research issues that involve working with phrases or words unlike quantitative approaches that examine numerical data. The exploration of challenges in aviation accident investigation and recommendation of measures to improve it will entails examine textual rather than numerical data. Additionally, this study does not involve testing the relationship between research variables or cause and effect relationships that are more suitable for quantitative research approaches.
The study employs qualitative case study design, which is one of the qualitative approaches that is used to examine a research issue within its context. Case studies have emerged as one of the most common measures for conductive qualitative inquiry since they are considered an increasingly rigorous research strategy (Kohlbacher, 2006). The use of this qualitative research design for this study is attributable to the fact that it enables researchers to retain the meaningful and holistic attributes of real-life events. The approach helps to answer “why”, “what”, and “how” questions when examining a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context or occurrence.
3.2 Data Collection Instruments
Kohlbacher (2006) states that there are several data collection instruments that are utilized in qualitative case studies including interviews, documents, participant-observation, archival records, direct observation, and physical artifacts. The use of these different data collection instruments is based on three principles i.e. use of multiple data sources, development of a case study database, and retaining a series of evidence. The data collection instruments employed in this study include documents, archival records, and interviews. Interview data will act as primary sources of evidence for this qualitative case study while documents and archival records will act as the secondary sources of data.
To help in obtaining rich data for the qualitative case study, a pilot case study was carried out as part of final preparation for collection of data. The researcher also identified relevant case studies on aviation accident investigation through conducting a search on electronic databases. The search on electronic databases acted as the premise for identifying relevant documents and physical artifacts that were analyzed to help answer the research questions and achieve the purpose of the study. Three electronic databases were used to identify relevant documents and cases i.e. EBSCOHost, Emerald Insight, and ProQuest. The search terms/phrases that were used include “aviation accident investigation”, “cases of aviation accident investigation”, “challenges in aviation accident investigation”, “recent aviation accidents”, and “improving aviation accident investigation.”
3.3 Sampling
The sampling technique for this qualitative case study is purposive sampling, which is commonly used in case study research. Purposive sampling is a non-probability sampling technique that is utilized to choose research participants based on attributes of the target population and objective/purpose of the study. This sampling technique is commonly known as selective, subjective or judgmental sampling since the research participants must meet certain criteria based on the phenomenon under investigation. As compared to random sampling technique, purposive sampling does not provide individuals in the target population equal chances for inclusion in the study. In this case, individuals in the target population are selected based on specific criteria, which implies that individuals who do not meet the criteria are automatically disqualified and excluded from the study.
For this study, purposive sampling technique was used to identify managers and experts in the field of aviation safety. The researcher selected five participants from aircraft maintenance organizations and other relevant aviation agencies. These five participants were selected based on their experience and direct involvement in aviation accident investigation. Given their expertise and experience, the individuals were interviewed to help gain insights on the current challenges relating to aviation accident investigation and how the overall process can be improved and/or quickened.
3.4 Data Analysis
For data analysis, the researcher employed thematic analysis, which is a foundational technique for qualitative analysis since it provides the core skills for other techniques of qualitative analysis (Nowell et al., 2017). Thematic analysis is a qualitative analysis method that is used to identify, analyze, organize, describe, and report patterns or themes found within a dataset (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The identified themes and patterns are in turn used to answer the research questions and draw relevant conclusions on the phenomenon under investigation. Thematic analysis is regarded as a foundational technique for other qualitative analysis methods since it’s a highly flexible method that can be amended to suit the needs of many studies and provide a rich and comprehensive account of data.
In this qualitative case study research, the researcher identified emerging themes or patterns from the multiple sources of evidence. Once data was obtained from the relevant documents, physical artifacts, and interviews, the researcher identified common themes/patterns in the dataset. The identified themes or patterns were in turn utilized to answer the research questions and draw conclusions on the issue of improving aviation accident investigation.
3.5 Reliability and Validity
To ensure reliability and validity, the researcher ensured that the selected cases and documents meet the inclusion criteria i.e. provide significant insights relating to aviation accident investigation. Secondly, the researcher followed a detailed step-by-step approach for conducting qualitative case study research as well as thematic analysis. Rigorous thematic analysis was carried out through persistent observation and data collection triangulation to ensure that the results help to answer the research questions. Additionally, the researcher ensured that the research process is logical, clearly documented, and traceable.
Chapter 4 – Results
As shown in the previous chapter, thematic analysis was utilized to examine data obtained from the research participants and relevant cases or documents. This chapter presents the results of the thematic analysis in relation to the research questions and purpose of the study. The results of the analysis are in turn utilized to answer the research questions and draw conclusions relating to the phenomenon under investigation.
4.1 Presentation of Data
The thematic analysis provided significant insights relating to the issue of challenges in aviation accident investigations and how they can be improved. These results can be grouped into different segments as follows:
4.1.1 Descriptive Statistics
The search conducted on electronic databases yielded very limited literature on the issue of aviation accident investigation. Based on the inclusion criteria, the researcher identified 10 relevant documents or studies on this issue. These studies or documents were classified into two major categories i.e. challenges in aviation accident investigation and improving aviation accident investigation. Each of these categories had five studies or documents are shown in the figure below.
Figure 1: Number of Documents Per Category





For the interviews, the researcher identified five research participants as previously indicated. Two of these research participants worked in the National Transportation Safety Board while the other two worked in aircraft maintenance organization and the remaining participants worked in the safety department of an airline.
4.1.2 Emerging Themes/Patterns from the Dataset
One of the emerging themes from the dataset is that aviation accident investigation is characterized by interference from external forces including relevant government authorities or agencies in the aviation industry. 60% of the reviewed documents/studies indicated that interference from external forces is a major impediment toward effective and speedy aviation accident investigation. Many individuals and institutions are motivated to influence the process of accident investigation in aviation. These individuals and institutions seek to influence the investigation process and its outcomes since aviation accident reports have significant impacts on individuals, manufacturers, airlines, maintenance organizations, air navigation service providers, and government institutions/agencies. 4 of the 5 interviewed research participants state that interference in aviation accident investigation process is a major stumbling block toward generating credible aviation accident reports and recommendations for preventing future reoccurrences. These participants reported that aviation accident investigation generates lots of interest from different relevant stakeholders, which makes the process more complex.
The second emerging theme or pattern from the dataset is that aviation accident investigation process conducted by the National Transportation Safety Board is usually very slow and takes a relatively long period of time before the release of the final report. All the five interviewed research participants stated that the NTSB’s aviation accident investigation process is usually complex and tends to drag for a long period. Additionally, these participants stated that the investigation process is not well understood, which makes it difficult for the public to understand the reports and their recommendations. The complexities of the process generate significant burdens on the various stakeholders involved in the investigation as they work in collaboration with NTSB. Since this process is not well understood, other stakeholders and agencies face problems in attempts to collaborate with NTSB during the investigations. These participants also argued that NTSB is seemingly facing challenges in investigation because of the increased advancements in aviation accident investigation tools and techniques. The reviewed literature states that aviation accident investigation is becoming more complex just like air traffic due to rapid technological developments. These developments make it difficult for aviation accident investigators like NTSB to quicken the process and generate recommendations for preventing future reoccurrences within a short duration of time.
The third theme or pattern in this dataset is the view that agencies involved in aviation accident investigations sometimes produce conflicting reports. The five research participants reported that while expert opinions are critical toward understanding the cause of aviation accidents, they sometimes contradict each other. The conflicts in expert reports in turn complicate the investigative report and raises questions regarding the findings of the process and its recommendations. 75% of the reviewed studies/documents state that the variance in expert opinions is brought by differing witness accounts or oral testimonies of an accident. When conducting aviation accident investigations, the National Transportation Safety Board is faced with these challenges, which complicate the ability to generate credible findings and recommendations for preventing future reoccurrences.
Analysis of the dataset shows that independent investigations that are free from any interferences are the most suitable approaches for improving aviation accident investigations. 100% of the interviewed research participants contend that independent investigations would help address the current challenges facing aviation accident investigations. They state that while the National Transportation Safety Board is an independent body mandated with the task of investigating accidents, the investigation process since involves other stakeholders who may interfere with it. 80% of the reviewed literature support the idea of independent aviation accident investigations and contend that NTSB is a suitable model. However, NTSB still involves a network of experts from other governmental agencies in this industry and the private sector. The involvement of these experts can sometimes prove challenging and generate additional complexities. Nonetheless, the research participants and existing literature support the idea of independent investigation of aviation accidents as a suitable framework and approach to enhance the process in light of its current challenges.
As part of enhancing the effectiveness of independent aviation accident investigations, existing literature and research participants propose the establishment of structured approaches to accident investigation. 100% of these research participants argue that structured approaches would help eliminate complexities and uncertainties that sometime characterize the investigative process. For instance, in the case of NTSB, structured approaches would help eliminate complexities emerging from the involvement of experts from other governmental bodies in the investigative process. The reviewed literature also supports this idea by stating that such approaches would help establish procedures and rules of operations for the investigation. The procedures and rules of operations would in turn help to limit the complexities and uncertainties. Moreover, such procedures and rules help to guide the process and generate credible investigative findings as well as recommendations for preventing future reoccurrences under the same circumstances.
Chapter 5 – Discussion
This chapter provides interpretation of results based on the research questions and in conjunction with the literature. Interpretation of the results is used to answer the research questions and draw relevant conclusions. Moreover, this chapter also discusses conclusions, limitations of the study, and recommendations for future research.
5.1 Interpretation of Results
The thematic analysis of data has raised several themes/patterns relating to the research questions and phenomenon under investigation. From the analysis, there is very limited literature on aviation accident investigation largely because of the significant decrease in major aviation accidents in recent years. Moreover, technological advancements have improved the capabilities of investigators, which has in turn contributed to limited literature on this topic. Nonetheless, based on existing literature, aviation accident investigation is still a major issue in the modern aviation industry.
The results of the study have demonstrated that there are numerous challenges facing aviation accident investigation. Some of these challenges include the involvement of different stakeholders with differing interests, complexities in the investigation process, interference from external forces, and generation of conflicting reports and opinions. These factors have combined to make aviation accident investigation very slow and complex for the involved stakeholders. Therefore, based on the results of the data analysis, the most suitable approach to enhance aviation accident investigation is to combine independent investigations with structured approaches for aviation accident investigations.
5.2 Conclusions
Based on the study’s findings, its evident that aviation accident investigation is still a major issue in today’s aviation industry despite the significant decline in the number or rate of major aviation accidents. It’s also evident that there is very limited literature on aviation accident investigations and reports. While the main goal of the investigation is to provide recommendations that help prevent future reoccurrences, aviation accident investigation is still characterized by some challenges. Current measures and strategies employed in conducting aviation accident investigations are good, but characterized with challenges. These challenges include involvement of different stakeholders with differing interests, complexities in the investigation process, interference from external forces, and generation of conflicting reports and opinions. The challenges can be addressed through combining the use of independent investigators like NTSB with structured approaches for aviation accident investigation.
5.3 Limitations of the Study
One of the limitations of this study is that its based on largely based on existing literature on the issue, which may not provide more insights on the problem. Secondly, the research is based on a relatively small sample of participants and documents. Third, there is very limited literature available on this topic, which limits ability to conduct rigorous research. Finally, the research methodology employed in this study only provides foundational framework for further inquiry and may not address the issue in a comprehensive manner.
5.4 Recommendations for Future Research
In light of the study’s findings and limitations, one of the recommendations for future research is for the inclusion of a larger sample size, which is likely to generate different insights on this topic. Secondly, future studies should utilize a different research methodology i.e. qualitative or mixed-methods research when analyzing this issue. A different research methodology would help to analyze this issue in a more comprehensive manner.
References
Balcerzak, T. (2017). A “Just Culture”? Conflicts of Interest in the Investigation of Aviation Accidents. Scientific Journal of Silesian University of Technology, 94, 5-17.
Boyd, D. & Stolzer, A. (2015). Causes and Trends in Maintenance-Related Accidents in FAA-Certified Single Engine Piston Aircraft. Journal of Aviation Technology and Engineering, 5(1), 17-24.
Coury, B.G., Kolly, J.M., Gormley, E. & Dietz, A. (2008, September 1). The Central Role of Principal Issues in Aviation Accident Investigation. SAGE Journals, 52(1), 99-103.
Drury, C.G. (2000). Human Factors in Aircraft Maintenance. Retrieved June 21, 2018, from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9928/7d713d79fc7a72a0f08d5f8076a72012f1a9.pdf
Federal Aviation Administration. (n.d.). Aviation Investigation Training. Retrieved June 21, 2018, from https://www.faa.gov/about/initiatives/maintenance_hf/library/documents/media/hfacs/2_accidentinvestigation.pdf
Fultz, A.J. & Ashley, W.S. (2016). Fatal Weather-related General Aviation Accidents in the United States. Physical Geography, 1-22.
Kohlbacher, F. (2006, January). The Use of Qualitative Content Analysis in Case Study Research. Qualitative Social Research, 7(1). Retrieved June 21, 2018, from http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/75/153
Macrae, C. & Vincent, C. (2014). Learning from Failure: The Need for Independent Safety Investigation in Healthcare. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 107(11), 439-443.
McCain, J. (1997). Aviation accident investigations: hearing before the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, U.S. Senate. Collingdale, PA: DIANE Publishing.
Milosovski, G. (2008, December). Improvement in Aircraft Accident Investigation Through Expert Systems. Retrieved June 21, 2018, from https://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/eserv/rmit:6170/Milosovski.pdf
Nowell, L.S., Norris, J.M., White, D.E. & Moules, N.J. (2017, October 2). Thematic Analysis – Striving to Meet the Trustworthiness Criteria. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 16(1), 1-13.
Oster Jr., C.V., Strong, J.S. & Zorn, C.K. (2013). Analyzing Aviation Safety: Problems, Challenges, Opportunities. Research in Transportation Economics, 43, 148-164.
Shappell, S.A. & Wiegmann, D.A. (1997). A Human Error Approach to Accident Investigation: The Taxonomy of Unsafe Operations. The International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 7(4), 269-291.
Singer, E.P. (2002). Recent Developments in Aviation Safety: Proposals to Reduce the Fatal Accident Rate and the Debate Over Data Protection. Journal of Air Law and Commerce, 67, 499-543.
Stoop, J.A. & Kahan, J.P. (2005, July). Flying is the Safest Way to Travel: How Aviation Was a Pioneer in Independent Accident Investigation. European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research, 5(2), 115-128.
Xavier, A.J. (2005, March). Managing Human Factors in Aircraft Maintenance Through a Performance Excellence Framework. Retrieved June 21, 2018, from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download;jsessionid=E747B3FA9CBA51C8FCD94EF61BFEDCCD?doi=10.1.1.621.1023&rep=rep1&type=pdf

Appendix – Interview Questions
1. What would you say is the current state of aviation accident investigations?
2. Do you feel that current approaches are effective to promote aviation safety? Please explain.
3. What are the major challenges facing aviation accident investigations?
4. Does integrating technology help to address these challenges and enhance efficiency and effectiveness of the process?
5. Do you feel that independent investigators like the National Transportation Safety Board is doing enough to address the challenges? Please explain.
6. Is there anything that can be done to improve aviation accident investigations? Please explain.