Benedetto Caetani Was Elected as

Benedetto Caetani was elected as Pope Boniface VIII on Christmas Eve in 1294, after the controversial resignation of Pope Celestine V. Throughout his time, Pope Boniface VIII papacy was marked by political controversy. The controversies surrounding the papacy term of Pope Boniface VIII were results of both his political decisions and the changing times of the Middle Ages. Pope Boniface VIII remained in the papal throne until 1302, after his rule was questioned and he died.

While the reign of Pope Boniface VIII was tumultuous and consumed by challenges to his authority, there were several papal bulls issued that were significant to the Middle Ages and the current Catholic Church of today. The Middle Ages began to change when Pope Boniface VIII took the papal throne. In 1296, Edward I of England removed the Scottish king. This act resulted in a war between Scotland and England.

In addition to this, in the latter part of the papacy in 1300, Sicilian Muslims were forcibly converted to Christianity, and this resulted in defiance to the legitimacy of the Pope as a political and religious figure. To add to these problems, Pope Boniface VIII was often challenged as not being a legitimate papacy because he was widely believed to have initiated the resignation of Celestine V, something that had never been done and was not accepted as legal.

Many believed that Pope Boniface VIII had coerced the former Pope to resign from the papal throne in order for his own succession. One of the first things Pope Boniface VIII did was to remove the papal court from Naples to Rome. He was, according to the New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia, "determined to remove the papacy as soon as possible from the influence of the Neapolitan court" (para. 2). The papal term of Boniface VIII lasted for nine years, from 1294 to 1303.

The entire time Boniface was pontiff, expressed and attempted to assert papal supremacy across all matters. This included not only religious affairs, but also temporal issues. Unfortunately, Pope Boniface VIII was faced with "the altered temper of the times" ("Pope Boniface VIII "para. 2). According to the New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia, Boniface possessed "profound knowledge of the canons of the Church, keen political instincts, great practical experience of life, and high talent for the conduct of affairs" (para. 3).

This would have made it seem as though Pope Boniface VIII was adequately equipped to influence society and the Church during his papacy. Some of his papal bulls were extremely influential in the Church and society, while others were not. Some of the bulls issued by Pope Boniface VIII included the Redemptor mudi, Clericis Laicos, Super rege et regina, Scimus, Fili, De Sepultuirs, Antiquiorum fida relation, and the Unam Sanctam.

One of the most controversial of the papal bulls of the papacy was the Clericis Laicos, which was issued in February of 1296. This papal bull "excommunicated all members of the clergy who, without authorization from the Holy See, pay to laymen any part of their income or the revenue of the Church, and all rulers who receive such payments" ("List of Papal Bulls").

Because of the conditions of the Middle Ages, and the temperament of the nobility, many of the funds being paid that would have been considered Church funds were necessary to fund wars between countries and kings. Therefore, several people were excommunicated from the Church because the edict was not followed. Other bulls, however, did have an impact on the political arena. These included the Super rege et regina, issued in 1297. This papal bull "bestowed on James II of Aragon the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica" ("List of Papal Bulls").

This resulted in a war between the pontifical troops and the Colonna clan. The pontifical troops were triumphant, and the rebellious Colonna clan was excommunicated and their property was confiscated ("Pope Boniface VIII "para. 10). One particular papal bull had particular religious and social significance. The Unam Sanctam was issued on November 18, 1302. This bull "declares that there is no salvation outside the Church, and that the Church must remain united" ("List of Papal Bulls"). The bull included much of the theologies of St. Bernard, Hugo of St. Victor, and St.

Thomas Aquinas ("Pope Boniface VIII "para. 15). King Philip refuted the validity of the bull, and was consequently excommunicated by Pope Boniface VIII. The greatest message of the bull was that the pope would have ultimate power over all things. The Unam Sanctam declares, "one sword ought to be subordinated to the other and temporal authority, subjected to spiritual power. For since the Apostle said: 'There is no power except from God and the things that are, are ordained of God' [Rom 13:1-2]" (Unam Sanctam para. 3).

Again, as he had throughout his papacy, Pope Boniface VIII chose to assert the.