Catholic Church in Spain and the United States

Catholic Church in Spain and the United States

The Catholic Church has been a very significant religious and political institution in the Europe. Its origins can be traced to a thousand years when Christianity was itself in its infancy. It was a symbol of colossal authority and was much regarded as an institution that was as similar to the installed governmental mechanism of any nation state. Its power and influence spread far and wide across border irrespective of nations, caste and civilization. The Catholic Church gained more recognition and prominence in the medieval ages of history which was better known as the dark ages of Europe. While Europe itself was passing through a phase of disturbing events, timeless conflicts and strife all across its territory, the Catholic Church consolidated its position. It began playing a very significant role in the realm of social politics.

Matters of the state and the society began to be addressed by not the government but the Catholic Church which by then had become an integral part of the national identity. During the medieval ages, Europe and a large part of the world were moving through an era of feudalism which ensured that the social lines of a nation were segregated along hierarchical lines dividing people into different groups and sub-groups. The Catholic Church established a very steadfast position in these societies often becoming a body that oversaw general administration in conjunction with the established monarchy or government. Quite often it voiced its concerns in a very vocal manner that prompted the government or the monarchy to take necessary steps from time to time. Even till this very day, the Catholic Church has maintained its powerful stand often being a socio-political entity that dictated the methodologies of the society and governance. With a great population of the religious sect, it has come to gain considerable recognition and importance.

The Spanish Connection:

Catholicism has indeed been a very significant part of Spain. The Catholic Church has for several centuries been an integral part of Spanish national identity. Several historic events such as the expulsion of Muslims and Jews, the life of inquest, deliberate and harsh opposition of Protestantism and a tremendous success in establishing the roots of Christianity across the vastness of the empire have been a part of Spanish history. In the upcoming era of secularization and urbanization, a wide range of issues affected the social position of Spain. Matters related to politics, finance, general administration, patronage rights of the State, relations with the Vatican, role of the church in provincial and nationwide political associations, religious incongruity and pluralism, role of the church in education and religion in the class room, public morality, issues with regard to divorce, marriage, abortion and so on, found prominence and were key topics that were unquestionable examples of the church's dominating influence and undivided power.

Catholic history in Spain originated in the 15th Century when the end of the 'war of reconquest' or Reconquista which brought about the unification of Spain by Catholic Kings. Almost immediately, the church and the symbol of the cross became a political and religious icon. The effect of this move was the total unification of the nation under the auspices of one single religion. Back in their backyard, Spanish kings had to counter the threat of the Moors and a huge population of Jews whom they regarded as a potential threat to the new found peace and stability in the region. Experts observe that it is for this reason that the state intervenes resolutely to ensure that the Catholic faith predominates in the Spanish society. In time, Catholicism spreads through the roots of the Spanish empire and scores of churches and chapels are established to profess the religion.

In the 17th century, the population of the Catholics numbers to a whopping two hundred thousand people. Young members of aristocratic families who had no significance to the throne and inheritance and women from those families which lacked the ability to meet the commitment of inflated dowries and grants formed part of the huge Catholic population among others. While the Catholic power has established seat in the heart of Spain, another threat was looming large. This time from Northern Europe, reformists such as Luther Lucas Cranach and Erasmus began questioning the Catholic set of guidelines and code of belief. With long struggles and times of tribulation, the Catholic ideology stays huddled together in one piece thus reigning supreme in the Spanish Empire for centuries together, thus blending itself with the national identity of the country. (Don Juan) tryst with America:

Much like Spain where the Catholic Church has reigned supreme, the United States has also been a prominent ground for the Catholic Church and its ideology. It has, much like in the Spanish stratum, been a considerable influence on the American socio-political setup often voicing its concerns on issues such as abortion, divorce, same sex marriages, and political matters and so on. It affirms and stands by firm traditional Catholic beliefs. In celebrating the seven sacraments, it adheres to the essential catholic doctrine and practice as implied in the statements of the Vatican Council. It seeks to be a platform of total and unconditional faith to those who may have in the past subjected to unfair experiences of the church. It rejects in total, artificial barriers to the reception of sacraments based on marital status, sexuality or orientation. Apart from the governmental machinery in place and an established practice of secularism and principles of freedom, the church continues to be a great source of power and ideological standards.

Issues such as abortion and divorce have been central issues of focus and debate. Extensive discussions have been the events that have taken place in the recent past. With steep controversies of the clergy involved in sexual exploitation of subjects and the issue of same sex marriages, the Catholic Church in the United States has been very much a part of the national identity. This has prompted policy influence in the governmental level and has called for better and augmented decisions from the administration. It is thus a very clear indication that the Catholic Church has a very significant and well imposed control over the say and process of the administration. In time the church has become a scion of the American society fusing well with the national and individual identity. The Old Catholic Church of the United States is an inheritor of apostolic succession from the western Latin Catholic Church, the ancient oriental churches and the eastern Byzantine orthodox churches. It is a religious denomination that split from the Roman Catholic Church in the year 1870.

Much recently, the refusal of the church to endorse the use of condoms to prevent the spread of HIV Aids has been a very controversial move that has earned grunts from various levels in the society. The policies of the church are at times regarded out of date and starkly radical often needing a more modern and out-of-the-box approach in handling different issues and arriving at better solutions for problems that are a definite plague to the society as such. It is not uncommon to note that the policies and decisions of the Catholic Church do at times attract more condemnation than the required warmth and general acceptance. This is primarily because the Church hinges upon a traditional school of thought that keeps in mind a very conservative methodology that is aimed at governing the Christian society at large. All said and done, the Catholic Church is a very significant pillar in the United States of America and its socio-political economic setup. (Old Catholic Church of the United States) & (Old Catholic Church - Wikipedia)

William Callahan was the author of the acclaimed book 'The Catholic Church in Spain, 1875 -1998.' The book is a colossal learning process of the Catholic Church in Spain since 1875 and continues the analysis of which the author began with his earlier study Church, Politics and Society in Spain, 1750-1874 (Harvard, 1984). These two works of study are a marvelous achievement and are a very complete and accurate account of two hundred and fifty years of Spanish Catholicism. In his study, William Callahan analyses the outrageously conflictive and violent history of the Spanish Church in the twentieth century. It is a very clear and comprehensive presentation of information till date about the history and functioning of the Spanish Church and its multi-dimensional role in the socio-political setup of Spain. It throws light on several bitter controversies such as the role of the Catholic Church in Spanish politics and the Civil War of 1936-1939.

His book provides a very comprehensive and detailed study of one of Spain's prominent establishments which survived a long and hard standing battle with time and the elements. A great many secular sections of the society viewed the Catholic Church of Spain to be an institution that monolithic, efficiently organized institution which was bent on the purpose of imposing a highly traditional Catholicism on a society which was undergoing a marked transformation on all fronts social, political, economic and military. On the flip side however, rising attitudes of liberalism, republicanism, socialism, anarchism, and intellectual pluralism ensured a direct and stiff challenge to the once accepted view of the clergy that Spain was always a catholic nation and would be one always.

The author has divided the book into twenty-four chapters. There is an introduction that surveys the Church from 1808 to 1873, followed by which there is a critical examination of the Church and politics from the year 1874 which signals the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy until the year 1930 which brought about the fall of the Primo de Rivera dictatorship. There is also a brief description and analysis of a host of topics that comprise the religious organization, clerical demography, the size, positioning and behavior of both the secular clergy and the spiritual groups and the nature and variety of religious practices among different classes and provinces in Spain. A great deal of focus is also thrust upon the Church during the Second Republic, the Civil War, the Franco dictatorship and the post-Franco era.

The author stresses that the Church was never the colossal organization that its critics have often understood. Religious orders and the secular clergy fashioned two dissimilar groups within the secular clergy. According to William Callahan, the secular hierarchy often lacked an effective national organization to communicate a single point-of-view on major concerns that troubled the society and the Church. A wide-ranging amount of recurring issues affected the Church from time to time. This included among other issues secularization, urbanization and social change to the European hemisphere.

Added to the hoard of matters that needed governmental and public scrutiny, the Spanish state moved into democracy after the year 1975 bringing about a change in the social setup. William J. Callahan is an authority in the subject of Catholicism that has reigned supreme in the Spanish society for centuries. He has clearly identified the issues that have troubled the foundation and existence of the Church over a long period of time. His work 'The Catholic Church in Spain, 1875 -1998' is a very lucid and all-inclusive painting of the various stages and phases that the Catholic Church has undergone from time to time. (The Catholic Church in Spain by Mark A. Burkholder) & (The Catholic Church in Spain, 1875-1998)

Power of the Church and its influence in the American and Spanish segment:

There have been several key issues that have been tumultuously debated by the Catholic Church from time to time often generating a gross amount of controversy and mudslinging. Nevertheless, the voice of the church has had a deep and very profound impact on both the governmental machinery and the social masses. Subjects such as Abortion, marriage and divorce, same sex marriages, religion, education, censorship and so on have clearly defined the role and influence of the Church in both the Spanish and American societies. Such issues have been very controversial and contentious and the policy of the Catholic Church indeed has had a very lasting impact that has snowballed more controversy and gathered widespread discontent within various sections of the society.

Although this has placed the Catholic Church on the forefront of policy decision making, the move has given it an ominously archaic reputation that is often regarded as incompatible with the modern day school of thought and action. Both the American and the Spanish societies have traditionally been imbibed with the values and teachings of Christianity for a very long time. Although there are significant differences in their social setup and economic arrangement, the influence of the church has indeed been a great swing in consideration of policy decision making. Although the United States of America has been a democracy right since its conceptualization and eventual formation way back in 1776, Spain has for centuries witnessed aristocratic rule in the midst of bitter conflicts and painful battles to sustain the idea of Christianity.

Spain gained the idea of democracy as late as 1975 which is about two centuries from the time since the United States was proclaimed a democratic and federal nation. The Catholic Church has an officially self recognized policy that speaks out against abortion. This policy has brought not just suffering but even death to scores of women. The anti-abortion movement espoused by the Church is driven by the well-known 'Right-to-Life' movement. Though the Bible does not make any mention of abortion or any policy against the practice, the clergy indicate that the phrase "Thou Shall Not Kill," applies equally to abortion. This view is by no means recent. It has traced its origins to the very beginning of Christianity itself. It is a clear reflection of the biblical view listed in Barnabas 19:5; "You shall not kill the fetus either by abortion or the newborn." Critics accuse the Church and the clergy of holding women hostage due to this supposedly 'inscrutable' policy that is purely antiquated and grossly ominous.

While the view of the reformists is based upon a more modern and realistic thinking, the clergy and the Church have from time to time spoken out against the practice of abortion in a harsh and unequivocal tone that has had a resounding effect in the community circles not just in Spain and the United States of America but also across the globe. The medieval era saw a great deal of punishments meted out to violators by way of excommunication, death or both. In the early days, anyone guilty of abortion was regarded as a serious offender and had to bear the brunt of the law, the society and the Church itself.

Clerics of the era had serious reservations about the practice although the whole issue was debated from time to time with a number of matured and well-thought considerations. Even though the society has witnessed marked transformations at various levels and during various stages of time, abortion was never really regarded as an accepted practice and was a punishable offence that could not be thought of in many or rather all social strata. It was a practice that guaranteed certain death or exclusion from social ranks. Thus the whole issue was forever shrouded with scorn and a bitter feeling of disgust. (Rejection of Pascal's wager: The Catholic Church and Abortion).

Among other issues there has been a deeply divided opinion with regards to education, marriage and divorce, religion as a whole and censorship. With regards to education, the church has forever maintained that it should and has been carrying out the process of education and tutoring as a very basic and important function. The mention of this fact can be traced back to Church writings as early as the second century. In the present day, the Church in the United States is educating a whopping 11 million men and women in its vast and expansive network of schools, colleges and universities. The Church and its infrastructure has generously contributed to the shaping of education and related policies and principles thereby providing a concrete mechanism in place as a solid and unperturbed source of faith and values across communities and religions.

Over 83% of graduates of Catholic high schools move on to post-secondary education. Catholic schools have a lower dropout rate than a good number of public schools put together or even other private schools owing to its quality of education and emphasis on general discipline. Schools and other educational institutions run by the church have been known to be of an exceptional standard often generating impeccable products and results that are truly an example to the society as a whole. (National Catholic Education Association)

The church has not only had a significant impact on the matters such as abortion and education. It has played a significant part in determining foreign policies of nation states, the United States of America included. Religion and foreign policy have had a share of integration although being subjects widely apart from each other having almost no discernible relationship. In the United States, churches, synagogues and other religious organizations have long played their part in cultivating civil society and influencing its population. It is common understanding and perception that religion plays a prominent role in domestic politics and policy making.

What is not understood is the role played by the Catholic Church in influencing foreign policy and relations. The Catholic Church is a body of significant social standing capable of issuing diktats from time to time. This is a clear exhibition of the unconditional and firm power infrastructure of the Catholic Church within and outside nation states. Even as the United States has made a very unambiguous and discernible disconnection of religion and public policy as groundwork of its political scheme, the distinctive religious orientation of the American people implies that religious beliefs manipulate much of the political learning in the American social layout.

The Catholic influence on the foreign policy of the United States of America has come through two different channels, that of the individuals and the institutions. Both these elements have at various stages been influential icons of the American society at large. Individuals with a much asserted Catholic base have served as foreign policy advisors under various administrations. The views of these people have been primarily shaped by their religious outlook. The catholic think tank has been very effective in shaping policy decisions so much so that during the cold war era in the 1980s, the letter of a number of Catholic Bishops concerning nuclear weapons was primarily instrumental in shaping the American public debate on contentious issues of war and its devastating impact. This can be cited as one among the many decisions that has been promulgated by the Catholic institution it shows the significant and high placed reach of the Catholic Church in policy matters of even the world's most powerful nation with issues such as secularization and modernization as the attribute of the upcoming future that comes way too soon. In being vocal, the Church has only established a place in the hierarchy of administration. (The Church and American Foreign Policy)

Influence of the Catholic Church on the abortion policy in the United States and Spain:

Abortion is the ejection of an immature and non-viable foetus from the womb. Where this happens naturally there can be no grounds for any sort of moral judgment. Where the abortion is 'procured' (done directly or caused to happen) the Church says that grave moral wrong is done." The Catholic Church has condemned the practice of abortion from time immemorial. It has been an upholder of the fifth commandment which goes thus; "Thou shall not kill." The Catholic Church believes that abortion is a practice that is as sinister as murder since it is premeditated and orchestrated. This view of the church is neither new nor formed on a sudden and time bound decision.

This is a reflection of its policy decision on the subject which is as old as its formation and inception itself. One of the earliest statements condemning abortion is in a document called the 'Didache', which was written in the 2nd century. In the 4th century, the Catholic Church declared abortion to b a crime under law and was hence liable to be punished by excommunication or even death. This position is clearly stated again in the Church's own collection of laws known as the Code of Canon Law, 1398; "A person who actually procures an abortion incurs automatic excommunication." (Canon 1398). (Abortion and the Catholic Church)

The view of the church is indeed one combined with factual ideology and conservatism. According to the prophecies of the Church, a child is more of a gift than a right. It maintains the strongest objection to all unnatural forms of birth control inclusive of abortion. It prophesizes that abortion denies the most fundamental of all human rights- which is the right to existence According to the church, the willful and thought-out destruction of any foetus is a heinous act of murder and is recognized as a crime. Furthermore, the Catholic Church lies down that any Catholic be it a mother or a medical practitioner who is involved in an act of abortion may be excommunicated from the Church and its sacraments.

The Catholic Church firmly believes that from the very first moment of existence, a human being must be recognized as having rights of a person. The Catholic Church also believes that life begins from the very moment and occurrence of conception and thereafter, the termination of the foetus at any time during pregnancy is viewed as an act of murder of the foetus. Apart from the United States and Spain alone, the Catholic Church has exerted widespread influence across the globe particularly in Catholic dominated nations that abortion is a grave crime that is in contravention with the teachings of the religion and the written down scriptures. (What does the Roman Catholic Church teach about Abortion?)

Canon 1398 provides that, "a person who procures a successful abortion incurs an automatic (latae sententiae) excommunication." This means that at the very moment that the planned process of abortion is regarded to be successfully accomplished, the woman and all formal conspirators, if any are excommunicated by the Church. This is done so because, on knowledge of pregnancy if a woman commits an abortion, it amounts to not just murder, as per the regulations of the Catholic Church, but also an excommunicable offence. Conspirators who also face the punishment of excommunication are all those who make access to the abortion a possible act.

A person who has been excommunicated by the order of the Catholic Church is forbidden from Holy Communion until such time when both absolution for the sin and absolution for the excommunication have been given. This shows the serious policy of the Catholic Church with reference to the practice of abortion. The Church does not allow abortion in any means be it in the instance or rape or as an instance to save a women's life. (Abortion) & (Abortion - Excommunication).

In the past, during the 1960s there has been a very marked difference in the tone of the Catholic Church while it echoed its views and thoughts more vocally and ostensibly. Within the clergy, there has been a tripartite opinion that was thus; total opposition to the practice of abortion, an openness to the legitimacy of the process of abortion because the fetus is not regarded to be a full-fledged human being and a mediating position which regards abortion as a justifiable process in certain very exceptional circumstances. Although this has been the view of the Catholic Church, the policy itself by and large rejects the process since according to teachings and values; it involves the termination of human life in an artificial manner that is not acceptable as per religious doctrines. Modern reformists and observers who harp on a more modern and scientific school of thought do regard that the views of the Church are a cause for grave concern.

This is because, the Catholic Church does not in any way allow for the process of abortion even if the birth is due to illicit means. It is argued that the traditional view is highly detrimental to the female population thereby putting them in a very tight spot in true practice and general debate. The whole issue of "Freedom of Choice" becomes irrelevant in this context and cannot be regarded as a personal matter that cannot be subjected to external influence. It is a wrong notion to assume that it is the Catholic Church that is vehemently opposed to abortion as a practice. Several Protestant statements, for example, the Mennonite General Conference's 1977 statement, the Church of the Brethren's 1984 declaration and the Lutheran Free Church in Norway's 1979 declaration have been fervent and steadfast opposers of the practice of abortion. (The Church and Abortion: Signs of Consensus)

The rate of abortions in the United States is truly shocking. To better understand the figures a series of diagrammatic representations have been added along with the study. This helps gain a better and clear insight into the facts and figures related to the subject.

Table #1; Annual Abortions in the United States (1973-2003)

Alan Guttmacher institute (AGI)

Centers for Disease Control (CDC)

Excludes States of NH, CA, AK and OK ** Excludes States of NH, CA and AK

NRLC Estimates [Source: NRLC Survey]

Since the year 1973, until the year 2003, which is a thirty year period, there have been a whopping 44,670,812 abortions in the United States alone. The above surveys have been conducted by independent agencies, Alan Guttmacher institute (AGI) and the Centers for Disease Control (CDC). (Abortion in the United States)

Table #2; Reasons given for abortions

Reason

Percentage of Abortions

Rape or Incest as a Primary Reason of deterrence

Parental Health Problems as a cause of concern

Possible Foetal Health Problems as a cause of concern

Unready for responsibility

Too immature or too young to bear a child

Parental Pressure

Relationship Problems that could end up in Single parenting

Husband's / Partner's Pressure as a cause of concern

Age of Current Children and the number of existing children

Affordability

Impact of Pregnancy on life in all aspects

Shunning Publicity

Other Reasons

Source: Alan Guttmacher institute (AGI)]

Reasons given for having abortions in the United States)

Abortion laws in the United States of America began appearing in the 1820s. Initially these laws forbade abortion after the fourth month of pregnancy. With the consistent efforts principally of physicians, the American Medical Association and legislators, most abortions in the United States had been proscribed by the year 1900. However, this did nothing to cap the rampant illegal abortions that still went on as a common practice. With the implementation of the Comstock law, the process reached notable depths even though it never was altogether ruled off from happening. The Comstock law came to be enacted in the United States in the year 1873 as a measure involving legislation of public morality.

It was primarily meant to arrest trade in obscene literature and immoral paraphernalia. In truth and application however, the scope of the law was broader than it appeared. Not only was it employed to target obscene material, it was also aimed at collecting varied information about methods of birth control, abortion included. The Comstock law was an instrument which was widely used to track and prosecute those people who distributed information or devices that assisted in birth control. In the year 1938, the Comstock Law was formally repealed when Judge August lifted the federal ban on birth control while hearing the landmark case of Margaret Sanger. (Comstock Law - Encyclopedia of Women's History)

Some early female rights and welfare activists such as Susan B. Anthony voiced and wrote opinions against the abortion process. They opposed abortion, which at that time of medical and technological infancy was an unsafe medical procedure for women, endangering their health and even their life. A mention can be made of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and her book the Revolution in which she wrote "But where shall it be found, at least begin, if not in the complete enfranchisement and elevation of woman?" In the year 1868, Matilda Joslyn Gage wrote, "I hesitate not to assert that most of this crime of child murder, abortion, infanticide, lies at the door of the male sex." With the widespread practice of safe and effective birth control, many female activists began advocating methods that often seconded them as auxiliary methods to fight and stamp out abortion. (Abortion - History of Abortion in the United States)

It is indeed notable that a great many of today's abortion rights organizations also harp on the issue of safe and effective birth control. Safe and effective birth control along with adequate sex education, available health care and the ability to support children adequately are essential factors that help in preventing the need for many abortions. By the year 1965, a large part of the United States banned the practice of abortion. Only minor legal differences between states persisted with regards to saving the life of the mother, incidents such as rape, incest, foetal deformation and so on. This brought about widespread discontent among the people and the formation of groups like the National Abortion Rights Action League and the Clergy Consultation Service on Abortion which was indeed working to liberalize anti-abortion laws.

American history saw a twist in the year 1973 with the landmark case of Roe v. Wade which prompted the Supreme Court of the United States to declare most existing state abortion laws unconstitutional. This historic decision ruled out the very possibility of any legislative interference in the first trimester of pregnancy. Furthermore, it also sought to put limits on the various restrictions that could be passed on abortions in later stages of pregnancy. This move was welcomed by a section of the society that believed in freedom of choice and relied upon the new school of thought. Elsewhere in the Church and among theological conservative Christian groups there was a widespread discontent followed by an outspoken demand to alter the legal procedure.

What followed was the formation of two groups better known as the "Pro-life" and Pro-Choice," the former being the advocator of a ban on abortion and the latter being a group favouring the freedom of choice and expression which is believed to be in keeping with modern and scientific ideas. Organizations such as the Eagle Forum, led by Phyllis Schlafly, have been a prime source of opposition to the lifting of abortion restrictions. Antagonism toward abortions has increasingly turned physical and even violent beyond huge proportions. The first step saw the prearranged blocking of access to clinics which provided abortion service, organized primarily by Operation Rescue, founded in 1984 and led by Randall Terry. On Christmas Day in the year 1984, three abortion clinics were bombed to the ground and all those who were subsequently convicted for the act called the bombings "a birthday gift for Jesus." (Abortion - History of Abortion in the United States)

The Catholic Church no doubt was the institution that was terribly annoyed with the developments. It was as though the hard and fast grip that the Church had on the society was lost once and for all. On the other hand, sections of the society were themselves deeply divided over the issue. One group that believed in the modern school of thought proclaimed this step to be a new beginning and a mode of deliverance. Another faction of the society was hinged on the belief that the new social system, thanks to the Supreme Court, was a blatant and utter disregard for biblical principles and the core foundation of theories upon which the Catholic Church was built upon. (Abortion - History of Abortion in the United States)

With time and a great lot of controversy behind the shoulder, the Catholic Church in the United States has been forced to alter its view on abortion. Currently the church maintains that deliberate acts of abortion are not any different from committing a crime. However, at times there can be come circumstances, according to the Church, when abortion can be deemed as a legitimate practice. Abortion can be a means to save the life of the mother and avoid, avoiding the transmission of dangerous diseases from mother to the baby and so on.

Although urbanization has indeed brought about a sense of liberalization, the practice of abortion has by no means been accepted as legitimate in total and continues to face widespread opposition from within the realms of the Catholic Church and also among different sections of the society. Woman's rights activists have been actively campaigning for the acceptance of abortion en masse thus saving a great deal of risk to the female population. But the view of the Catholic Church is in sharp contrast to that view which is often regarded as modern, scientific and adherent to changing times.

With the raging debate of abortion and its practice across the United States, three groups with different views have emerged in the forefront of the topic. They are; the secular organizations, liberal and mainline faith groups; and conservative faith groups. Secular Organizations are those bodies which allow and promote a free access to abortion and its practice. They believe in modern principles and the "Freedom of Choice" unlike other organizations and themselves operate on a school of thought that is regarded to be more practical. A few of them can be identified as; The American Humanist Association, The NARAL Pro-Choice American Foundation, The Planned Parenthood Foundation of America and The Young Woman's Christian Association (YWCA).

Liberal mainline faith groups are those organizations who have a moderate view on the practice of abortion. These organizations either promote a woman's right to choose abortion or are silent on the matter. A few of them can be identified as thus; American Baptist Churches-USA, American Ethical Union, American Friends (Quaker) Service Committee, American Jewish Committee, American Jewish Congress, Catholics for Free Choice, Central Conference of American Rabbis, Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Council of Jewish Federations, Episcopal Church (USA), Episcopal Women's Caucus, Evangelicals for Choice, Federation of Reconstructionist Congregations and Havurot, Jewish Women International, Lutheran Women's Caucus, Moravian Church in America-Northern Province, Na'Amat USA, National Council of Jewish Women, North American Federation of Temple Youth, Presbyterian Church (USA), Religious Coalition for Reproductive Choice, Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, Union of American Hebrew Congregations, Unitarian Universalist Association, Unitarian Universalist Women's Federation, United Church of Christ, United Methodist Church, United Synagogue for Conservative Judaism, Women of Reform Judaism, Women's American ORT, Women's Caucus Church of the Brethren; and Women's League for Conservative Judaism.

Conservative faith groups are those organizations or bodies that are opposed to the practice of abortion. Among themselves, there are many sub-groups that have adopted different approaches to the issue of abortion at large. A few of these sub-groups are vehemently opposed to the idea of abortion no matter what the reason or the circumstance, yet a few others would permit and endorse the idea of abortion to avoid serious health hazards and yet some others would support the issue on moral grounds if child birth is due to reasons of incest or rape. It is estimated that there are more then a thousand conservative faith groups who oppose the idea of abortion by adopting a 'Pro-life' stand. A few of the prominent groups can be identified as thus; African Methodist Episcopal Church, Assemblies of God, Church of God in Christ, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (the Mormons), Church of the Nazarene, Eastern Orthodox churches, Lutheran Church, Missouri Synod, Progressive National Baptist Convention, Salvation Army, The Southern Baptist Convention and so on. (Current Abortion beliefs of religious groups)

The Supreme Court of the United States, on July 3rd, 1989, presided over the landmark case of William L. Webster V. Reproductive Health Services. In its verdict and observation, it persuaded the legislatures of the States to create constitutionally justifiable legislation or matters of public policy that was aimed at restricting the legal access to abortion. This decision has been hailed largely by the conservative faith groups that adopted the 'Pro-life' approach. With the resultant of the historical case, Roe V. Wade, the Catholic Church of the United States has been clinging on to persuade the administration to reverse this supposed 'blunder.' The church has on its part always played the role of an upholder of Biblical views and teachings. According to the church, acknowledging the practice of abortion and legalizing it would undermine the very basic principles of Catholicism thereby spear-heading the nation into a chaotic and uncalled for situation.

It points out that, illegal abortions are on the rise despite strict measures to keep check and maintain stringent observation aimed at capping the process. With the society deeply divided in this issue and the Church losing a grip on the social structure, it is widely believed that the so called archaic and antiquated views shall come to be realized with a broader and more mature perspective. The role of the Catholic Church in shaping of abortion laws has indeed been significant. At various stages and different points of time, the Church has made much publicized views with regards to its approach on the issue. Recently, there has been a marked difference in the tone of the Church in which it chose to describe abortion and its effects. (Catholic Politicians, U.S. Bishops' role in Abortion law and public policy)

The Catholic Church has been a traditional identity of Spain for a few centuries. After the Reconquest and the reinstitution of the inquisition in Spain back in the 15th Century, the state machinery which had close links with the order of the Church imposed harsh measures to bring about religious and political unity. Over time, the government and the church fused into one single national identity that could not be done apart from each other. A number of strong moves were made to differentiate the Church and the governmental apparatus but all those moves were indeed short lived and grossly unsuccessful. In the year 1965, the Second Vatican Council professed the Church's stand on human rights. This prompted the Spanish Catholic Church to rethink its support of the dictatorial rule of Franco.

At the fag end of the rule of Franco, the Church which until now had been an unconditional supporter of the dictator and his policies turned out to be his harshest critic. This difference in position of the Church proved the beginning of a bitter and notable difference from within the Spanish Catholic Community. Within the monolithic organization, there came into being a breed of people with a more right-wing attitude, bitterly disparate to any form of democratic change. It comprised of a Brotherhood of Spanish priests who lost little time and effort in publishing matters against the reformers of the Church.

On the other hand, the opposition grew into a more violent form and called themselves the Warriors of Christ the King, which in truth was not anything more than the rightist Catholic terrorist organization. Ordinary people on one side were deeply frustrated by the slow reform process and the turmoil that was becoming apparent with the passage of time. This contributed a great deal too political and social unrest as it was for the first time around that the state and the church which in effect was viewed as one were expressing opinions contrary to each other.

The year 1971 brought about a historic occurrence. While the Church continued to remain a formidable enemy of Franco's rule, a joint assembly of Bishops and Priests was underway. For the first time in a few centuries, Spain witnessed a marked difference between the Church and the Spanish State. Later on, in the year 1973, an Episcopal Conference was conducted. Under the auspices of the conference, Bishops called for a separation of the Church from the State and demanded a revision of the 1953 accord. Negotiations for the move came to a grinding halt as the dictator Franco refused to give up rights to veto the appointments made by the Vatican. The dilemma continued until the death of the dictator who failed to understand the opposition of the Church in the very first place. It is very ironical to note that no other Spanish ruler had favoured the Church and upheld its existence like Franco.

The church on its part had quietly assumed a rapid transformation into a modern institution almost a decade before Spain could taste the air of democracy. This helped consolidate its position making it a very influential body after the death of Franco. What followed after the death of the dictator was an atmosphere conducive to work out lost relations in a relaxed manner free from the clutches of monarchy. The church continued to gain socio-political prominence in this new era with a new role and a new cloak. With the installation of democracy, the role of the Monarch was more constitutional than imposing. In the free reign of democracy, the Catholic Church gained more power, significance and influence over the Spanish society as it continues to be to this very day. The church in Spain has had a considerable influence over the governmental machinery as well as the design of foreign policy. It is an undoubted force that exerts immense authority on the people of Spain and their government alike. (allrefer reference - Spain - Roman Catholic Church)

Among member states of the European Union, only Spain, Ireland and Portugal have immensely restrictive abortion laws. This can well be traced to the influence of the Catholic Church. Opposition from the Catholic Church has significantly eroded the possibility of liberalization. With the church and the state condemning the practice of abortion in a single voice, observers believe that abortion in Spain is on the rise increasing at four times the rate of birth due to lack of sex education and the scarcity in the availability of contraceptives. Spanish health ministry statistics indicated that in the year 2002 alone, voluntary terminations of pregnancy amounted to 77,125. It is an increase of 10.4% where on the other hand, the birth rate rose by a mere 2.5% to 416,518.

The enormous increase in the percentage of abortion practices is primarily attributed to insufficient sex education and the grave shortage of contraceptives. Health officials across Spain indicate that the situation in Spain is not any different from that across the world. The primary glitch however emanates from the fact that a whopping 98% of the Spanish populations are Roman Catholics. By virtue of their religion, Catholics are prohibited from the usage of contraceptives to practice birth control. An independent survey that was conducted by the Health department of Spain indicates that abortion rates were highest among women aged 20 to 24, followed by the 25 to 29 age group and those under 20. (Abortions outpace births in Spain - United Press International)

Traditionally, Spain has been a steadfast follower of the opinion of the Catholic Church with regards to abortion. It is well-known that the Catholic Church in turn condemned the practice of abortion and other birth control methods. Until the year 1983, Spanish law clearly regarded abortion, sale and procurement of contraceptives and access to information with reference to birth control as crimes. Due to this, scores of Spanish women were forced to travel to England to access abortion and other contraceptive devices. In the year 1985, the abortion law of Spain was found to be unconstitutional. Following this move, Spain legalized abortion in certain exceptional cases such as rape, severe fetal abnormality and serious risk to the woman's mental or physical health or both. This was a dramatic move often regarded as a departure from traditional confines that had so far been dictated by the Catholic Church.

It was the emergence of what was seen to be a wave of modernization in the Spanish socio-political scenario. This move despite logical and sensible, gained widespread condemnation from the Catholic Church. Observers indicate that despite legalization of abortion in many cases, the services are not readily accessible by scores of people who need it on a genuine basis. Being a traditional Catholic society with hard and fast beliefs that have been handed down for centuries, a large part of the society still continues to view abortion with a degree of stigma. Very few physicians are known to operate in this field due to the ever present danger of harassment and physical harm. Downgraded to private clinics, there is still a great deal of fear attached to the practice and law enforcement agencies across Spain maintain tight vigil by raiding illegal abortion centers and initiating criminal proceedings.

In the year 1994, the Spanish Government proposed a legislation that would permit abortion during the first 12 weeks of pregnancy. The abortion process would require a three-day waiting period following counseling on alternatives to abortion. To this date, the issues of abortion and birth control have deeply divided the Spanish society. The Catholic Church continues to exert massive pressure on the social structure with regards to thorny issues such as abortion. (Abortion in Law - History and religion - Spain)

Influence of the Catholic Church on the education policy in the United States and Spain:

The Catholic Church has regarded education and its promotion to be one among the many basic and most important functions. The Catholic Church is the largest operator of private schools in the United States of America. Roughly 2.6 million students form part of the 6900 elementary schools and about 1200 high schools aggregating to a whopping cost of $10 billion a year. A good number of elementary schools are connected to local parishes while high schools are usually run by a religious order such as the Jesuits or Christian Brothers. In the United States alone there are about 230 catholic colleges and Universities with a combined strength of 670,000 students.

A good number of these colleges are sponsored by a religious congregation such as the Jesuits. The Jesuits have twenty eight colleges including the prestigious Georgetown, Boston College, and Holy Cross College. Out of these, eleven colleges are sponsored by the diocese and the Catholic University based in Washington is directly sponsored by the Church. A good number of catholic Colleges maintain a direct financial connection between themselves and the Church. Most of them are run by a board of trustees and much like other colleges, tuition is the primary generator of revenue. (BW Online, April 15, 2002 Table: The U.S. Catholic Church: How it works)

The Catholic Church has been an institution that has shaped the education policy of the United States. It is a remarkable achievement of the church that a tremendous amount of progress has been achieved in the field of education. In order to better understand the reach and presence of catholic schools and colleges a table has been given hereunder.

Table #2: Summary statistics on Catholic elementary and secondary schools

Number of Schools

Enrollment

Total Ele Sec Total Ele Sec 1-2 3-4 5-6-7 1919-20

1929-30

1939-40

1949-50

Fall 1960

1969-70

1970-71

1974-75

1975-76

1979-80

1980-81

1981-82

1982-83

1983-84

1984-85

1985-86

1986-87

1987-88

1988-89

1989-90

1990-91

1991-92

1992-93

1993-94

1994-95

1995-96

1996-97

1997-98

1998-99

Source: National Catholic Educational Association, A Statistical Report on Catholic Elementary and Secondary Schools as compiled from the Official Catholic Directory.]

Ele = Elementary, Sec = Secondary.

Table #2 Continued....,

Instructional Staff

Elementary

Secondary

1919-20

1929-30

1939-40

1949-50

Fall 1960

1969-70

1970-71

1974-75

1975-76

1979-80

1980-81

1981-82

1982-83

1983-84

1984-85

1985-86

1986-87

1987-88

1988-89

1989-90

1990-91

1991-92

1992-93

1993-94

1994-95

1995-96

1996-97

1997-98

1998-99

1 = Includes Part Time teachers

2 = Includes estimates for non-reporting schools

3 = Includes Full Time equivalent

Note: Data reported by the National Catholic Educational Association and data reported by the National Center for Education Statistics are not directly comparable because survey procedures and definitions differ.

Data excludes pre-kindergarten enrollment.

Source: National Catholic Educational Association, A Statistical Report on Catholic Elementary and Secondary Schools as compiled from the Official Catholic Directory.]

Summary Statistics on Catholic Elementary and Secondary Schools by level 1919-20 to 1998-99)

Most private institutions in the United States have been religious in one way or another. Prominent among them are the catholic institutions that have made their presence in the lengths and expanses of the country. Catholic educational institutions have a very high and widely accepted standard that makes them unique and favourable among many students and parents. A great majority of catholic schools are parochial schools meaning to say that they are supported and controlled by individual parishes. A good majority of these schools provide only elementary level instruction. Other than the Catholic parochial schools, some systems of schools are operated by Catholic dioceses. These school systems are generally known as diocesan schools.

Yet some other Catholic schools are controlled by independent religious orders of the Catholic Church for instance the Jesuits, Benedictines, Christian Brothers and so on. These schools offer a very high standard of education and their academic programs are far superior when compared to those offered by other schools. The National Catholic Educational Association is the largest national group representing Catholic schools in the United States. Although there are a great number of schools in the United States, Catholic Schools and colleges have become more sought after educational institutions owing to their high standard of education. (MSN Encarta - Private Education in the United States)

Catholic Educational Institutions across the United States operate on the basis of a six pointer program that aims at streamlining education at school and college levels. They are thus; All people have the right to quality education, Parental rights and responsibilities are primary in the education process, students are the central focus of all education, Quality teaching is essential in assisting the learning process, True quality education must address the moral and spiritual needs of the students; and that the government has a responsibility to provide adequate resources for the attainment of quality education for all children and these policy decisions are best made at the level closest to the actual teaching and learning situation. This brought about widespread prominence and acceptance of catholic educational institutions as premier bodies of education across the United States of America thereby placing it at the helm of the American Educational Forefront. The Catholic Church in the United States has indeed been a pioneer in promoting quality education and learning concepts. (U.S. Catholic Bishops - Department of Education)

The United States of America saw a marked and notably appreciable transformation in education and educative policies thanks to the Catholic Church at large. In the year 1910, a mere 9% of the American youth had high school diplomas. The economy changed itself considerably within a period of three decades and in the year 1940; independent studies indicate that more than 50% of the American youth possessed high school diplomas signaling a large scale change in the education scenario of the country. This in itself is regarded to be a marked change of great significance as it marks the beginning of American society that drives forward to achieve literacy and education. The Catholic Church has had a fair share of responsibility in bringing about the transformation that has been witnessed in the United States of America in the early twentieth century.

The aim of the Catholic Church and its umbrella institutions was to drive home the need for quality education and provide it in various forms across the country through established universities and colleges that allowed for better student interaction and structured and qualitative learning process. The Catholic brand of educational institution was an instant success and quickly gained wide acclaim and respect in all sections of the American society. With time a great deal of students found their way into these superior portals of education with the singular aim of achieving quality education and superior overall intellect. Given below are a series of graphs indicating various educational facts and figures in the United States.

Graph #1: School Enrolment and Graduation Figures.

Source: U.S. Department of Education, 2003]

Graph #2: Graduation Rate

Source: State level high school graduation rates] (NBER Working Paper Series)

Apart from education and educative practices alone, the Catholic Church has stirred a few controversies in this scenario. The issue of 'school prayer' and the influence of the Catholic Church in religion-based education has been an issue that rocked educational circles. The controversy of public school prayers was kick started in the year 1962 when the United States Supreme Court first ruled that such observances stood in violation of the Establishment Clause. Thus began a long and unsettled issue in the United States education scenario on the religion-politics forefront. A series of related incidents deeply divided the American public even causing the country's first Roman Catholic president John F. Kennedy to voice his opinion. A section of the society believed that prayer in public schools was more of a day-to-day activity rather than a cause for questioning.

Yet another section of the society believed that public schools needed to be neutral rather than taking sides since schools are more of an avenue for learning and imparting education to all sections of the society rather than mere places of religious orientation. This brought about the famous first amendment that guaranteed individual rights. It concluded that school children may voluntarily choose to pray during or after school and furthermore ensures that non-religious children need not have to pray at all. This thrust the essence of personal freedom over forced choice. Another section of society regard that it is the responsibility of the government to amend the constitution so as to facilitate the government to take over the activity of prayer. In truth the whole issue has been sticky and highly controversial yielding more flak and disagreement rather than an accepted solution.

With increasing religious diversity, there came a time when the entire issue needed a more mature analysis. In the run up to the conflict arose the landmark case of Engel v. Vitale. The Honourable Supreme Court of the United States ruled against any officially sponsored and organized school prayer. The words of Justice Hugo L. Black were thus; "We think that by using its public school system to encourage recitation of the Regents' prayer [a nondenominational prayer created by the government], the State of New York has adopted a practice wholly inconsistent with the Establishment Clause." In the year 1963, the Supreme Court once again highlighted this view in the case of Abington Township v. Schempp. The court, in this case, observed that Bible readings in public schools also amount to a violation of the First Amendment. Thus began a long tussle between the ideologies of the Church and the legal machinery of the established law. (School Prayer - A Community at War) & (School Prayer)

The debate as to whether school prayer was an issue of personal freedom or part of value education prescribed by the church continued in full scale. A common and much accepted view was that public schools are portals of education and not endorsers of religion. Thus it was felt that the need for more education was required than religion in the premises of these schools. More than anything came up the issue of equality. It was held that public schools are meant for all sections of the society irrespective of caste, creed, and sex and so on. Therefore the conduction of a prayer in the premises shall by no means be subscribed by those students who are not of the same religion.

This could cause a divide not merely in the social levels but also within the education strata that involves young students. Public schools were imparters of quality education and thus the need for neutrality was felt. It was the general opinion that worship shall not mix with the business of education. A very visible distinction was made to this effect and several debates came into the center stage. As a result prayer has been limited to voluntary, individual and of silent nature rather than forced choice. (The Case against School Prayer)

Over time this issue of 'school prayer' has been more than just its name. Serious controversies have been witnessed by people. For instance, in Oklahoma two women who were church members complained about prayers in their children's junior high school. Both women received death threats. One of them was physically assaulted and the other received threats that her home would be attacked and burned down. Subsequently, the mobile home in which she was residing was torched to the ground. The instance of two Louisiana Students who refused to participate in School prayers has also gained popularity. Both the students were harassed and detested by fellow students. They were regarded to be "Satanists and devil worshippers." The famous book by Robert Boston, 'Why the Religious Right is wrong about Separation of Church and State', is a clear and concise work that outlines that these types of disputes generally tend to have a long and sad history in the United States.

According to the author, Roman Catholics began a series of objections while Protestants conducted prayers. Thereafter Bible reading became a common practice in schools in the nineteenth century. This led to a series of conflicts known as the "Bible Wars." Consequent to the Bible wars, a very disturbing and eventful situation broke out. New York City was the worst affected after violence erupted following the decision of the Superintendent of Schools to excuse Catholic children from daily routines and prayers. Catholic churches boasted armed guards to ensure that no untoward incident took place. After New York it was Philadelphia where a three day riot erupted after the city's board of education voted to allow Catholic children to be exempted from mandatory religious classes.