The Catholic Church's role in Spanish and American political and social history

Catholic Church in Spain and the United States

The Catholic Church has been a very significant religious and political institution in the Europe. Its origins can be traced to a thousand years when Christianity was itself in its infancy. It was a symbol of colossal authority and was much regarded as an institution that was as similar to the installed governmental mechanism of any nation state. Its power and influence spread far and wide across border irrespective of nations, caste and civilization. The Catholic Church gained more recognition and prominence in the medieval ages of history which was better known as the dark ages of Europe. While Europe itself was passing through a phase of disturbing events, timeless conflicts and strife all across its territory, the Catholic Church consolidated its position. It began playing a very significant role in the realm of social politics.

Matters of the state and the society began to be addressed by not the government but the Catholic Church which by then had become an integral part of the national identity. During the medieval ages, Europe and a large part of the world were moving through an era of feudalism which ensured that the social lines of a nation were segregated along hierarchical lines dividing people into different groups and sub-groups. The Catholic Church established a very steadfast position in these societies often becoming a body that oversaw general administration in conjunction with the established monarchy or government. Quite often it voiced its concerns in a very vocal manner that prompted the government or the monarchy to take necessary steps from time to time. Even till this very day, the Catholic Church has maintained its powerful stand often being a socio-political entity that dictated the methodologies of the society and governance. With a great population of the religious sect, it has come to gain considerable recognition and importance.

The Spanish Connection:

Catholicism has indeed been a very significant part of Spain. The Catholic Church has for several centuries been an integral part of Spanish national identity. Several historic events such as the expulsion of Muslims and Jews, the life of inquest, deliberate and harsh opposition of Protestantism and a tremendous success in establishing the roots of Christianity across the vastness of the empire have been a part of Spanish history. In the upcoming era of secularization and urbanization, a wide range of issues affected the social position of Spain. Matters related to politics, finance, general administration, patronage rights of the State, relations with the Vatican, role of the church in provincial and nationwide political associations, religious incongruity and pluralism, role of the church in education and religion in the class room, public morality, issues with regard to divorce, marriage, abortion and so on, found prominence and were key topics that were unquestionable examples of the church's dominating influence and undivided power.

Catholic history in Spain originated in the 15th Century when the end of the 'war of reconquest' or Reconquista which brought about the unification of Spain by Catholic Kings. Almost immediately, the church and the symbol of the cross became a political and religious icon. The effect of this move was the total unification of the nation under the auspices of one single religion. Back in their backyard, Spanish kings had to counter the threat of the Moors and a huge population of Jews whom they regarded as a potential threat to the new found peace and stability in the region. Experts observe that it is for this reason that the state intervenes resolutely to ensure that the Catholic faith predominates in the Spanish society. In time, Catholicism spreads through the roots of the Spanish empire and scores of churches and chapels are established to profess the religion.

In the 17th century, the population of the Catholics numbers to a whopping two hundred thousand people. Young members of aristocratic families who had no significance to the throne and inheritance and women from those families which lacked the ability to meet the commitment of inflated dowries and grants formed part of the huge Catholic population among others. While the Catholic power has established seat in the heart of Spain, another threat was looming large. This time from Northern Europe, reformists such as Luther Lucas Cranach and Erasmus began questioning the Catholic set of guidelines and code of belief. With long struggles and times of tribulation, the Catholic ideology stays huddled together in one piece thus reigning supreme in the Spanish Empire for centuries together, thus blending itself with the national identity of the country. (Don Juan) tryst with America:

Much like Spain where the Catholic Church has reigned supreme, the United States has also been a prominent ground for the Catholic Church and its ideology. It has, much like in the Spanish stratum, been a considerable influence on the American socio-political setup often voicing its concerns on issues such as abortion, divorce, same sex marriages, and political matters and so on. It affirms and stands by firm traditional Catholic beliefs. In celebrating the seven sacraments, it adheres to the essential catholic doctrine and practice as implied in the statements of the Vatican Council. It seeks to be a platform of total and unconditional faith to those who may have in the past subjected to unfair experiences of the church. It rejects in total, artificial barriers to the reception of sacraments based on marital status, sexuality or orientation. Apart from the governmental machinery in place and an established practice of secularism and principles of freedom, the church continues to be a great source of power and ideological standards.

Issues such as abortion and divorce have been central issues of focus and debate. Extensive discussions have been the events that have taken place in the recent past. With steep controversies of the clergy involved in sexual exploitation of subjects and the issue of same sex marriages, the Catholic Church in the United States has been very much a part of the national identity. This has prompted policy influence in the governmental level and has called for better and augmented decisions from the administration. It is thus a very clear indication that the Catholic Church has a very significant and well imposed control over the say and process of the administration. In time the church has become a scion of the American society fusing well with the national and individual identity. The Old Catholic Church of the United States is an inheritor of apostolic succession from the western Latin Catholic Church, the ancient oriental churches and the eastern Byzantine orthodox churches. It is a religious denomination that split from the Roman Catholic Church in the year 1870.

Much recently, the refusal of the church to endorse the use of condoms to prevent the spread of HIV Aids has been a very controversial move that has earned grunts from various levels in the society. The policies of the church are at times regarded out of date and starkly radical often needing a more modern and out-of-the-box approach in handling different issues and arriving at better solutions for problems that are a definite plague to the society as such. It is not uncommon to note that the policies and decisions of the Catholic Church do at times attract more condemnation than the required warmth and general acceptance. This is primarily because the Church hinges upon a traditional school of thought that keeps in mind a very conservative methodology that is aimed at governing the Christian society at large. All said and done, the Catholic Church is a very significant pillar in the United States of America and its socio-political economic setup. (Old Catholic Church of the United States) & (Old Catholic Church - Wikipedia)

William Callahan was the author of the acclaimed book 'The Catholic Church in Spain, 1875 -1998.' The book is a colossal learning process of the Catholic Church in Spain since 1875 and continues the analysis of which the author began with his earlier study Church, Politics and Society in Spain, 1750-1874 (Harvard, 1984). These two works of study are a marvelous achievement and are a very complete and accurate account of two hundred and fifty years of Spanish Catholicism. In his study, William Callahan analyses the outrageously conflictive and violent history of the Spanish Church in the twentieth century. It is a very clear and comprehensive presentation of information till date about the history and functioning of the Spanish Church and its multi-dimensional role in the socio-political setup of Spain. It throws light on several bitter controversies such as the role of the Catholic Church in Spanish politics and the Civil War of 1936-1939.

His book provides a very comprehensive and detailed study of one of Spain's prominent establishments which survived a long and hard standing battle with time and the elements. A great many secular sections of the society viewed the Catholic Church of Spain to be an institution that monolithic, efficiently organized institution which was bent on the purpose of imposing a highly traditional Catholicism on a society which was undergoing a marked transformation on all fronts social, political, economic and military. On the flip side however, rising attitudes of liberalism, republicanism, socialism, anarchism, and intellectual pluralism ensured a direct and stiff challenge to the once accepted view of the clergy that Spain was always a catholic nation and would be one always.

The author has divided the book into twenty-four chapters. There is an introduction that surveys the Church from 1808 to 1873, followed by which there is a critical examination of the Church and politics from the year 1874 which signals the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy until the year 1930 which brought about the fall of the Primo de Rivera dictatorship. There is also a brief description and analysis of a host of topics that comprise the religious organization, clerical demography, the size, positioning and behavior of both the secular clergy and the spiritual groups and the nature and variety of religious practices among different classes and provinces in Spain. A great deal of focus is also thrust upon the Church during the Second Republic, the Civil War, the Franco dictatorship and the post-Franco era.

The author stresses that the Church was never the colossal organization that its critics have often understood. Religious orders and the secular clergy fashioned two dissimilar groups within the secular clergy. According to William Callahan, the secular hierarchy often lacked an effective national organization to communicate a single point-of-view on major concerns that troubled the society and the Church. A wide-ranging amount of recurring issues affected the Church from time to time. This included among other issues secularization, urbanization and social change to the European hemisphere.

Added to the hoard of matters that needed governmental and public scrutiny, the Spanish state moved into democracy after the year 1975 bringing about a change in the social setup. William J. Callahan is an authority in the subject of Catholicism that has reigned supreme in the Spanish society for centuries. He has clearly identified the issues that have troubled the foundation and existence of the Church over a long period of time. His work 'The Catholic Church in Spain, 1875 -1998' is a very lucid and all-inclusive painting of the various stages and phases that the Catholic Church has undergone from time to time. (The Catholic Church in Spain by Mark A. Burkholder) & (The Catholic Church in Spain, 1875-1998)

Power of the Church and its influence in the American and Spanish segment:

There have been several key issues that have been tumultuously debated by the Catholic Church from time to time often generating a gross amount of controversy and mudslinging. Nevertheless, the voice of the church has had a deep and very profound impact on both the governmental machinery and the social masses. Subjects such as Abortion, marriage and divorce, same sex marriages, religion, education, censorship and so on have clearly defined the role and influence of the Church in both the Spanish and American societies. Such issues have been very controversial and contentious and the policy of the Catholic Church indeed has had a very lasting impact that has snowballed more controversy and gathered widespread discontent within various sections of the society.

Although this has placed the Catholic Church on the forefront of policy decision making, the move has given it an ominously archaic reputation that is often regarded as incompatible with the modern day school of thought and action. Both the American and the Spanish societies have traditionally been imbibed with the values and teachings of Christianity for a very long time. Although there are significant differences in their social setup and economic arrangement, the influence of the church has indeed been a great swing in consideration of policy decision making. Although the United States of America has been a democracy right since its conceptualization and eventual formation way back in 1776, Spain has for centuries witnessed aristocratic rule in the midst of bitter conflicts and painful battles to sustain the idea of Christianity.

Spain gained the idea of democracy as late as 1975 which is about two centuries from the time since the United States was proclaimed a democratic and federal nation. The Catholic Church has an officially self recognized policy that speaks out against abortion. This policy has brought not just suffering but even death to scores of women. The anti-abortion movement espoused by the Church is driven by the well-known 'Right-to-Life' movement. Though the Bible does not make any mention of abortion or any policy against the practice, the clergy indicate that the phrase "Thou Shall Not Kill," applies equally to abortion. This view is by no means recent. It has traced its origins to the very beginning of Christianity itself. It is a clear reflection of the biblical view listed in Barnabas 19:5; "You shall not kill the fetus either by abortion or the newborn." Critics accuse the Church and the clergy of holding women hostage due to this supposedly 'inscrutable' policy that is purely antiquated and grossly ominous.

While the view of the reformists is based upon a more modern and realistic thinking, the clergy and the Church have from time to time spoken out against the practice of abortion in a harsh and unequivocal tone that has had a resounding effect in the community circles not just in Spain and the United States of America but also across the globe. The medieval era saw a great deal of punishments meted out to violators by way of excommunication, death or both. In the early days, anyone guilty of abortion was regarded as a serious offender and had to bear the brunt of the law, the society and the Church itself.

Clerics of the era had serious reservations about the practice although the whole issue was debated from time to time with a number of matured and well-thought considerations. Even though the society has witnessed marked transformations at various levels and during various stages of time, abortion was never really regarded as an accepted practice and was a punishable offence that could not be thought of in many or rather all social strata. It was a practice that guaranteed certain death or exclusion from social ranks. Thus the whole issue was forever shrouded with scorn and a bitter feeling of disgust. (Rejection of Pascal's wager: The Catholic Church and Abortion).

Among other issues there has been a deeply divided opinion with regards to education, marriage and divorce, religion as a whole and censorship. With regards to education, the church has forever maintained that it should and has been carrying out the process of education and tutoring as a very basic and important function. The mention of this fact can be traced back to Church writings as early as the second century. In the present day, the Church in the United States is educating a whopping 11 million men and women in its vast and expansive network of schools, colleges and universities. The Church and its infrastructure has generously contributed to the shaping of education and related policies and principles thereby providing a concrete mechanism in place as a solid and unperturbed source of faith and values across communities and religions.

Over 83% of graduates of Catholic high schools move on to post-secondary education. Catholic schools have a lower dropout rate than a good number of public schools put together or even other private schools owing to its quality of education and emphasis on general discipline. Schools and other educational institutions run by the church have been known to be of an exceptional standard often generating impeccable products and results that are truly an example to the society as a whole. (National Catholic Education Association)

The church has not only had a significant impact on the matters such as abortion and education. It has played a significant part in determining foreign policies of nation states, the United States of America included. Religion and foreign policy have had a share of integration although being subjects widely apart from each other having almost no discernible relationship. In the United States, churches, synagogues and other religious organizations have long played their part in cultivating civil society and influencing its population. It is common understanding and perception that religion plays a prominent role in domestic politics and policy making.

What is not understood is the role played by the Catholic Church in influencing foreign policy and relations. The Catholic Church is a body of significant social standing capable of issuing diktats from time to time. This is a clear exhibition of the unconditional and firm power infrastructure of the Catholic Church within and outside nation states. Even as the United States has made a very unambiguous and discernible disconnection of religion and public policy as groundwork of its political scheme, the distinctive religious orientation of the American people implies that religious beliefs manipulate much of the political learning in the American social layout.

The Catholic influence on the foreign policy of the United States of America has come through two different channels, that of the individuals and the institutions. Both these elements have at various stages been influential icons of the American society at large. Individuals with a much asserted Catholic base have served as foreign policy advisors under various administrations. The views of these people have been primarily shaped by their religious outlook. The catholic think tank has been very effective in shaping policy decisions so much so that during the cold war era in the 1980s, the letter of a number of Catholic Bishops concerning nuclear weapons was primarily instrumental in shaping the American public debate on contentious issues of war and its devastating impact. This can be cited as one among the many decisions that has been promulgated by the Catholic institution it shows the significant and high placed reach of the Catholic Church in policy matters of even the world's most powerful nation with issues such as secularization and modernization as the attribute of the upcoming future that comes way too soon. In being vocal, the Church has only established a place in the hierarchy of administration. (The Church and American Foreign Policy)

Influence of the Catholic Church on the abortion policy in the United States and Spain:

Abortion is the ejection of an immature and non-viable foetus from the womb. Where this happens naturally there can be no grounds for any sort of moral judgment. Where the abortion is 'procured' (done directly or caused to happen) the Church says that grave moral wrong is done." The Catholic Church has condemned the practice of abortion from time immemorial. It has been an upholder of the fifth commandment which goes thus; "Thou shall not kill." The Catholic Church believes that abortion is a practice that is as sinister as murder since it is premeditated and orchestrated. This view of the church is neither new nor formed on a sudden and time bound decision.

This is a reflection of its policy decision on the subject which is as old as its formation and inception itself. One of the earliest statements condemning abortion is in a document called the 'Didache', which was written in the 2nd century. In the 4th century, the Catholic Church declared abortion to b a crime under law and was hence liable to be punished by excommunication or even death. This position is clearly stated again in the Church's own collection of laws known as the Code of Canon Law, 1398; "A person who actually procures an abortion incurs automatic excommunication." (Canon 1398). (Abortion and the Catholic Church)

The view of the church is indeed one combined with factual ideology and conservatism. According to the prophecies of the Church, a child is more of a gift than a right. It maintains the strongest objection to all unnatural forms of birth control inclusive of abortion. It prophesizes that abortion denies the most fundamental of all human rights- which is the right to existence According to the church, the willful and thought-out destruction of any foetus is a heinous act of murder and is recognized as a crime. Furthermore, the Catholic Church lies down that any Catholic be it a mother or a medical practitioner who is involved in an act of abortion may be excommunicated from the Church and its sacraments.

The Catholic Church firmly believes that from the very first moment of existence, a human being must be recognized as having rights of a person. The Catholic Church also believes that life begins from the very moment and occurrence of conception and thereafter, the termination of the foetus at any time during pregnancy is viewed as an act of murder of the foetus. Apart from the United States and Spain alone, the Catholic Church has exerted widespread influence across the globe particularly in Catholic dominated nations that abortion is a grave crime that is in contravention with the teachings of the religion and the written down scriptures. (What does the Roman Catholic Church teach about Abortion?)

Canon 1398 provides that, "a person who procures a successful abortion incurs an automatic (latae sententiae) excommunication." This means that at the very moment that the planned process of abortion is regarded to be successfully accomplished, the woman and all formal conspirators, if any are excommunicated by the Church. This is done so because, on knowledge of pregnancy if a woman commits an abortion, it amounts to not just murder, as per the regulations of the Catholic Church, but also an excommunicable offence. Conspirators who also face the punishment of excommunication are all those who make access to the abortion a possible act.

A person who has been excommunicated by the order of the Catholic Church is forbidden from Holy Communion until such time when both absolution for the sin and absolution for the excommunication have been given. This shows the serious policy of the Catholic Church with reference to the practice of abortion. The Church does not allow abortion in any means be it in the instance or rape or as an instance to save a women's life. (Abortion) & (Abortion - Excommunication).

In the past, during the 1960s there has been a very marked difference in the tone of the Catholic Church while it echoed its views and thoughts more vocally and ostensibly. Within the clergy, there has been a tripartite opinion that was thus; total opposition to the practice of abortion, an openness to the legitimacy of the process of abortion because the fetus is not regarded to be a full-fledged human being and a mediating position which regards abortion as a justifiable process in certain very exceptional circumstances. Although this has been the view of the Catholic Church, the policy itself by and large rejects the process since according to teachings and values; it involves the termination of human life in an artificial manner that is not acceptable as per religious doctrines. Modern reformists and observers who harp on a more modern and scientific school of thought do regard that the views of the Church are a cause for grave concern.

This is because, the Catholic Church does not in any way allow for the process of abortion even if the birth is due to illicit means. It is argued that the traditional view is highly detrimental to the female population thereby putting them in a very tight spot in true practice and general debate. The whole issue of "Freedom of Choice" becomes irrelevant in this context and cannot be regarded as a personal matter that cannot be subjected to external influence. It is a wrong notion to assume that it is the Catholic Church that is vehemently opposed to abortion as a practice. Several Protestant statements, for example, the Mennonite General Conference's 1977 statement, the Church of the Brethren's 1984 declaration and the Lutheran Free Church in Norway's 1979 declaration have been fervent and steadfast opposers of the practice of abortion. (The Church and Abortion: Signs of Consensus)

The rate of abortions in the United States is truly shocking. To better understand the figures a series of diagrammatic representations have been added along with the study. This helps gain a better and clear insight into the facts and figures related to the subject.

Table #1; Annual Abortions in the United States (1973-2003)

Alan Guttmacher institute (AGI)

Centers for Disease Control (CDC)

Excludes States of NH, CA, AK and OK ** Excludes States of NH, CA and AK

NRLC Estimates [Source: NRLC Survey]

Since the year 1973, until the year 2003, which is a thirty year period, there have been a whopping 44,670,812 abortions in the United States alone. The above surveys have been conducted by independent agencies, Alan Guttmacher institute (AGI) and the Centers for Disease Control (CDC). (Abortion in the United States)

Table #2; Reasons given for abortions

Reason

Percentage of Abortions

Rape or Incest as a Primary Reason of deterrence

Parental Health Problems as a cause of concern

Possible Foetal Health Problems as a cause of concern

Unready for responsibility

Too immature or too young to bear a child

Parental Pressure

Relationship Problems that could end up in Single parenting

Husband's / Partner's Pressure as a cause of concern

Age of Current Children and the number of existing children

Affordability

Impact of Pregnancy on life in all aspects

Shunning Publicity

Other Reasons

Source: Alan Guttmacher institute (AGI)]

3 = Includes Full Time equivalent

Note: Data reported by the National Catholic Educational Association and data reported by the National Center for Education Statistics are not directly comparable because survey procedures and definitions differ.

Data excludes pre-kindergarten enrollment.

Source: National Catholic Educational Association, A Statistical Report on Catholic Elementary and Secondary Schools as compiled from the Official Catholic Directory.]

Summary Statistics on Catholic Elementary and Secondary Schools by level 1919-20 to 1998-99)

Most private institutions in the United States have been religious in one way or another. Prominent among them are the catholic institutions that have made their presence in the lengths and expanses of the country. Catholic educational institutions have a very high and widely accepted standard that makes them unique and favourable among many students and parents. A great majority of catholic schools are parochial schools meaning to say that they are supported and controlled by individual parishes. A good majority of these schools provide only elementary level instruction. Other than the Catholic parochial schools, some systems of schools are operated by Catholic dioceses. These school systems are generally known as diocesan schools.

Yet some other Catholic schools are controlled by independent religious orders of the Catholic Church for instance the Jesuits, Benedictines, Christian Brothers and so on. These schools offer a very high standard of education and their academic programs are far superior when compared to those offered by other schools. The National Catholic Educational Association is the largest national group representing Catholic schools in the United States. Although there are a great number of schools in the United States, Catholic Schools and colleges have become more sought after educational institutions owing to their high standard of education. (MSN Encarta - Private Education in the United States)

Catholic Educational Institutions across the United States operate on the basis of a six pointer program that aims at streamlining education at school and college levels. They are thus; All people have the right to quality education, Parental rights and responsibilities are primary in the education process, students are the central focus of all education, Quality teaching is essential in assisting the learning process, True quality education must address the moral and spiritual needs of the students; and that the government has a responsibility to provide adequate resources for the attainment of quality education for all children and these policy decisions are best made at the level closest to the actual teaching and learning situation. This brought about widespread prominence and acceptance of catholic educational institutions as premier bodies of education across the United States of America thereby placing it at the helm of the American Educational Forefront. The Catholic Church in the United States has indeed been a pioneer in promoting quality education and learning concepts. (U.S. Catholic Bishops - Department of Education)

The United States of America saw a marked and notably appreciable transformation in education and educative policies thanks to the Catholic Church at large. In the year 1910, a mere 9% of the American youth had high school diplomas. The economy changed itself considerably within a period of three decades and in the year 1940; independent studies indicate that more than 50% of the American youth possessed high school diplomas signaling a large scale change in the education scenario of the country. This in itself is regarded to be a marked change of great significance as it marks the beginning of American society that drives forward to achieve literacy and education. The Catholic Church has had a fair share of responsibility in bringing about the transformation that has been witnessed in the United States of America in the early twentieth century.

The aim of the Catholic Church and its umbrella institutions was to drive home the need for quality education and provide it in various forms across the country through established universities and colleges that allowed for better student interaction and structured and qualitative learning process. The Catholic brand of educational institution was an instant success and quickly gained wide acclaim and respect in all sections of the American society. With time a great deal of students found their way into these superior portals of education with the singular aim of achieving quality education and superior overall intellect. Given below are a series of graphs indicating various educational facts and figures in the United States.

Graph #1: School Enrolment and Graduation Figures.

Source: U.S. Department of Education, 2003]

Graph #2: Graduation Rate

Source: State level high school graduation rates] (NBER Working Paper Series)

Apart from education and educative practices alone, the Catholic Church has stirred a few controversies in this scenario. The issue of 'school prayer' and the influence of the Catholic Church in religion-based education has been an issue that rocked educational circles. The controversy of public school prayers was kick started in the year 1962 when the United States Supreme Court first ruled that such observances stood in violation of the Establishment Clause. Thus began a long and unsettled issue in the United States education scenario on the religion-politics forefront. A series of related incidents deeply divided the American public even causing the country's first Roman Catholic president John F. Kennedy to voice his opinion. A section of the society believed that prayer in public schools was more of a day-to-day activity rather than a cause for questioning.

Yet another section of the society believed that public schools needed to be neutral rather than taking sides since schools are more of an avenue for learning and imparting education to all sections of the society rather than mere places of religious orientation. This brought about the famous first amendment that guaranteed individual rights. It concluded that school children may voluntarily choose to pray during or after school and furthermore ensures that non-religious children need not have to pray at all. This thrust the essence of personal freedom over forced choice. Another section of society regard that it is the responsibility of the government to amend the constitution so as to facilitate the government to take over the activity of prayer. In truth the whole issue has been sticky and highly controversial yielding more flak and disagreement rather than an accepted solution.

With increasing religious diversity, there came a time when the entire issue needed a more mature analysis. In the run up to the conflict arose the landmark case of Engel v. Vitale. The Honourable Supreme Court of the United States ruled against any officially sponsored and organized school prayer. The words of Justice Hugo L. Black were thus; "We think that by using its public school system to encourage recitation of the Regents' prayer [a nondenominational prayer created by the government], the State of New York has adopted a practice wholly inconsistent with the Establishment Clause." In the year 1963, the Supreme Court once again highlighted this view in the case of Abington Township v. Schempp. The court, in this case, observed that Bible readings in public schools also amount to a violation of the First Amendment. Thus began a long tussle between the ideologies of the Church and the legal machinery of the established law. (School Prayer - A Community at War) & (School Prayer)

The debate as to whether school prayer was an issue of personal freedom or part of value education prescribed by the church continued in full scale. A common and much accepted view was that public schools are portals of education and not endorsers of religion. Thus it was felt that the need for more education was required than religion in the premises of these schools. More than anything came up the issue of equality. It was held that public schools are meant for all sections of the society irrespective of caste, creed, and sex and so on. Therefore the conduction of a prayer in the premises shall by no means be subscribed by those students who are not of the same religion.

This could cause a divide not merely in the social levels but also within the education strata that involves young students. Public schools were imparters of quality education and thus the need for neutrality was felt. It was the general opinion that worship shall not mix with the business of education. A very visible distinction was made to this effect and several debates came into the center stage. As a result prayer has been limited to voluntary, individual and of silent nature rather than forced choice. (The Case against School Prayer)

Over time this issue of 'school prayer' has been more than just its name. Serious controversies have been witnessed by people. For instance, in Oklahoma two women who were church members complained about prayers in their children's junior high school. Both women received death threats. One of them was physically assaulted and the other received threats that her home would be attacked and burned down. Subsequently, the mobile home in which she was residing was torched to the ground. The instance of two Louisiana Students who refused to participate in School prayers has also gained popularity. Both the students were harassed and detested by fellow students. They were regarded to be "Satanists and devil worshippers." The famous book by Robert Boston, 'Why the Religious Right is wrong about Separation of Church and State', is a clear and concise work that outlines that these types of disputes generally tend to have a long and sad history in the United States.

According to the author, Roman Catholics began a series of objections while Protestants conducted prayers. Thereafter Bible reading became a common practice in schools in the nineteenth century. This led to a series of conflicts known as the "Bible Wars." Consequent to the Bible wars, a very disturbing and eventful situation broke out. New York City was the worst affected after violence erupted following the decision of the Superintendent of Schools to excuse Catholic children from daily routines and prayers. Catholic churches boasted armed guards to ensure that no untoward incident took place. After New York it was Philadelphia where a three day riot erupted after the city's board of education voted to allow Catholic children to be exempted from mandatory religious classes.

Thirteen people were killed in the flare-up and Catholic houses and churches were set on fire. Subsequently, a Catholic priest in Maine was assaulted after he advised his parishioners to file a lawsuit challenging mandatory Protestant worship in schools. After New York and Philadelphia, it was the turn of Cincinnati where Catholics successfully won a legal tussle that permitted removal of their wards from religious exercises of the school. Ever since there has been an uneasy calm between the two communities and the entire issue was raked up to life once again in 1962 prompting ugly scenes.

In the year 1960, a survey was conducted by Americans United for Separation of Church and State. The study went on to reveal that only five states had laws requiring daily Bible reading and twenty-five states had laws allowing 'optional' Bible reading. Furthermore, the survey highlighted that courts in about eleven states had already declared the practice to be unconstitutional. It also underscored the fact that the remaining states had no laws with regards to this matter. It has been estimated that 75% of public schools had already eliminated state-sponsored prayer before the year 1962. One of the very earliest legal tussles with reference to this matter is Ring v. Board of Education.

The facts of the case were thus; in the year 1910, the Supreme Court of Illinois pronounced its opinion against religious exercises in public schools which included prayer, Bible reading and daily hymns. As always, this was prompted by a series of complaints that had been made by Catholic parents. In its verdict, the Court observed; "The exclusion of a pupil from this part of the school exercises in which the rest of the school joins, separates him from his fellows, puts him in a class by himself, deprives him of his equality with the other pupils, subjects him to a religious stigma and places him at a disadvantage in the school." The entire issue has been very contentious and has been successful in creating deep social divisions within the community. (School Prayer Has Always Been Divisive)

The year 1995 saw two unlike amendments of the constitution to the religious clauses of the first amendment being introduced in the House of Representatives. Rep. Ernest Jim Istook introduced the Religious Liberties Amendment, H.J. Res. 127, and Rep. Henry Hyde introduced the Religious Equality Amendment, H.J. Res. 121. In the Senate, Orrin Hatch had simultaneously introduced an amendment, S.J. Res. 45, identical to that of Rep. Hyde's Religious Equality Amendment. Rep. Istook's proposal focuses primarily on the issue of prayer in school and other related issues while the proposition made by Rep.

Hyde seeks to authorize extensive government funding of religious institutions which also includes houses of worship. It is better known as the 'Religious Equality' approach that aims at bringing about harmony between religious lines avoiding conflict and bitterness. But the 'Religious Equality' approach is regarded to be a controversial move in itself as it calls for extensive amendments of the constitution that could indeed jeopardize the very structure of the religious infrastructure. Moreover, experts are of the opinion that a considerable change in the religious policy needs not an extensive constitutional amendment but harmony in the society and increased tolerance. (In Congress - American Civil Liberties Union)

Role of the Catholic Church as n interest group:

In the aftermath of the Second World War, the Catholic Church in Europe faced new challenges in establishing its influence in the light of democracy spreading far and wide. Thereafter, the Church attained to role of an interest group seeking to accomplish and coagulate its influence by forging new relationships and alliances with political parties. In doing so it established a socio-political identity that came to be prominently known across the European Union, the United States, The United Kingdom, the Asian hemisphere and many other places. During different stages of history the church has been directly responsible for many acts both overtly and covertly. An instance can be cited of the Spanish Church's allegiance to the Franco regime and the subsequent desertion.

A mention can also be made of the Spanish civil war in which the Church played a very significant role. In truth, by donning the role of a special interest group, the church was expanding its social and political role in all realms of the society. More than ever, it gained cultural, social, political and strategic access to many societies often blending with their national identity and subsequently influencing policies of the state. The French Church had a very shallow and brief connection with a political party that was directly related to its loss of political authority during the World War. The Italian Church's power, on the other hand, remained unwavering and well consolidated through the War, therefore the Church and the Christian Democrats had little trouble in arriving at multiple grounds for long-term cooperation. The German Church chose yet another path. It reluctantly but quite strategically aligned itself with a new Catholic-Protestant party.

It was the continuation of an age old policy and tradition that allowed for religion in politics. By adopting this method, the Church not only consolidated its position by a great deal but also installed itself as a very significant social organ which oversaw various policy decisions of the nation state and studied their impact on a far reaching scale. This had multiple benefits as it not only helped the Church to establish an unchallenged seat of power but ensured that the Church was in fact a monitoring authority that hinged on the policies of accountability from the government and the nation as a whole with whom it had little trouble in fusing identities. The church became a de facto governing body often dictating policies and principles. (Confessions of an Interest group: The Church & Politics)

In time the Church has come to understand that a mix of religion almost definitely catapults it to a powerful standing in the social structure. In doing so, it has taken up multidimensional roles, that of an educator, regulator, policy maker and so on. It is common knowledge that religion has become an ideology that is used as a plank to step into the functioning of politics. This is true universally. The Church behaves in close coordination with several political parties across the globe donning the mantle of an interest group that is keen in fashioning policies and procedures which is professes from time to time. It is this perspective of the church that grants it the autonomy of any independent yet inter-related organization that is ranked in the powerful echelons of the socio-political structure of a nation state.

After a successful merger with the nationalist identity, the church portrays itself as a part of the governmental mechanism rather than a separate organ which is involved in the professing of religion and religious practices and principles. This role has given it the liberty to influence almost any policy decision that is promulgated by the government of that nation. Its decision making and influence are absolute and virtually unchallenged. It also has the advantage of a large sect following that ensures that long standing traditions are professed and implemented with little or no problem at all. Apart from the traditional role of a preaching institution, the era of modernization has also taught the church to assume different roles such as those of an educator, policy maker and so on in keeping with changing trends. This has ensured that the position of the Church has been unchallenged and its doctrines followed by the word. (Read - Interest Groups, Political Parties and Religion)

Conclusion:

The Catholic Church is not merely an institution that is engaged in religious doctrines and theories. It has transformed into an organization that wields considerable power and influence not only over its billion strong subjects but also upon nation states and their intricate functioning. Formed with the origins of Christianity thousands of years ago, it is easily the largest religious organization in the world which has from time to time stepped outside its line of functioning and even influenced governments and monarchs with reference to policy decisions. With the passage of time, it has formulated its very own set of policies and principles with reference to key issues such as Abortion, Education, marriage, Divorce, drugs, morality, religious integration and so on.

Not only has it been extremely successful in fabricating policy decisions, it has also been a champion when it has come to the implementation of these policies which it does either in its own capacity or through the multi-faceted tone of the government of a nation state. The policy of the Catholic Church with regards to Abortion has been a very sticky one which has drawn more flak and criticism than appreciation. Nevertheless, the Catholic Church has been extremely successful in putting in place its policy and making it very acceptable among its subjects and other nations where its influence reigns supreme. Based on the principles and teachings of Christianity, the Catholic Church is opposed to the practice of abortion which it regards as a crime not anything different from murder. Until recently laws related to abortion were very stringent.

A relaxed version with many conditions has been a product of the recent past. The issue of abortion itself is associated with a great deal of controversy. Female rights activists across the globe voiced their concern with regards to the traditional and conservative abortion policy of the Church that did not allow the practice of abortion even under the most critical of circumstances. The church continued to maintain its stand based on the biblical prophecy that abortion was illegal and needed to be viewed as a misdeed which is punishable by death or excommunication. This was the practice indeed, until the 20th century. A good number of centuries had passed by witnessing the Church maintain its stand with unwavering commitment and steadfast biblical compliance.

Countries wherein the Church has a superior say in opinion and policy matter ensured that the diktat of the Church itself was the language of the law. Spain has been a Catholic nation since the 15th century. Ever since, the church and the government, the monarchies rather, have shared a fused identity that was viewed not any different from either. Abortion laws have been extremely stringent in the Spanish mainland from time immemorial. Over the passage of time, despite the need for a technically new and revised version of this law, nothing had been done to the effect. The advent of the 20th century saw marked changes in the political apparatus of Spain. Rocked by the impact of the world wars and a dictator who enjoyed the support of the Church and later its desertion and criticism, the time had come for some serious change.

But the change was not meant to usher in liberalization. By the year 1975, after the death of Franco, King Juan Carlos I assumed power and declared a total democracy thrusting Spain into a new and modern era. Until the year 1983 abortion was regarded as an illegal practice even though it was a rampant practice. After 1983, the law was found unconstitutional and was modified to a certain extent that allowed abortion under critical circumstances. However, the abortion law of Spain continues to be extremely stringent with a great many fine prints. Education has also been on the forefront agenda of the Catholic Church. Over its period of existence and evolution, the Catholic Church has created a class of education system that is till date unparalleled both in quality and number. Catholic educational institutions provide quality education to millions of students not only in the United States and Spain but across the globe cutting across cultural, religious, economic and social barriers.

Christian orders such as the Jesuits, the Patricians and so on have established an unbeatable and world class education system that is truly worthy of its existence. The Catholic Church has always maintained that education was at its forefront of the biblical agenda and regarded it to be one of its most basic and extremely important functions. Thanks to this mature and beneficial attitude, the business of education has become an extensive network of operations connecting corners of the globe with unthinkable ease. Even though the Catholic Church has been a significant pillar of the Christian society and a remarkable source of unswerving power and authority it has had its share of disparage and shame. Of late allegations of sexual abuse by the clergy and other members of the church have resounded across the United States and other parts of the world.

This has done a definite part to tarnish the image of the Catholic Church. Decisions to appoint gay bishops have also attracted flak from all corners of the catholic world with demonstrations that are bannered "We don't subscribe to the gay attitude." Several people from within the Church have spoken out against the decision that is widely believed to be controversial and uncharacteristic of the true Christian tradition. Most recently the Church's leniency towards homosexuals and the issue of same sex marriages being sanctioned under the auspices of the Catholic Church have been issues that have proved to be sticky and contentious. There are deep divisions within the levels of the Church with regards to such issues. All said and done, the Catholic Church will continue to remain a source of powerful influence and authority over its subjects not just in the United States and Spain but also across the globe irrespective of Nations, cultures and practices. It has truly attained the status of an immortal icon that wields considerable authority and charisma.