Chinese religions: history, practices, and beliefs

Chinese Religions

Discuss Taoism and Confucianism as responses to the social chaos during the Warring States period

Confucianism and Taoism were the two main philosophies developed in China during the Warring States Period, which started around the year 400 B.C. And lasted until 221 B.C. During this chaotic time, China became divided in seven different states or regional powers which were ruled by lords or dukes, who soon began to call themselves "kings," this being an indicative of the state of utter division which reigned in China, where the power of the dynasty king was no longer recognized. This chaotic social and political context is said to have been the cause of the great cultural developments that ensued and the emergence of Confucianism and Taoism respectively, as philosophical reactions to the social chaos and confusion meant to reestablish the lost order and balance for the individual and for the society.

Confucianism was developed by Confucius in the fifth century B.C. And was, together with Taoism, the main religion until the beginning of the twentieth century. In many respects, the two philosophies are alike, although Confucianism is more oriented towards society and social practices, whereas Taoism is an abstract philosophy, which focuses more on the individual and the way to absolute truth and freedom of mind. The main principles of Confucianism, especially as it was later defined by Mencius, were the belief in the innate goodness of humanity, in righteousness, virtue and mutual respect, which were extended to all the actions, either individual or social, and which should be used as the main instruments for governing oneself as well as the state. The Confucians believed that, to achieve the governing of virtue, people should center their lives around different rituals, which comprised everything, from the proper way in which one would lie during sleep to the proper way in which the empire should be governed. Thus, instead of outer laws, rites were preferred as they determined the individual to act while using his virtue, rather than obeying an external will, as it is said in the fourth chapter of the Analects: "The Master said, 'If the will be set on virtue, there will be no practice of wickedness.'"(Legge)

As opposed to this, Taoism believed not in virtue as such, but in the following of "the way" or "tao," which was also a way of behavior or a general attitude towards life, but which focused on the means of attaining absolute truth and absolute knowledge: "Those who are good I treat as good. / Those who are not good I also treat as good. / in so doing I gain in goodness." The Taoists thus believed that the way should integrate everything there is, both what is considered evil and what is considered good so as to achieve a complete view of the universe.

2. Discuss the concepts of non-action and spontaneity (tzu-ran) in the Tao-Te-Ching and Chuang-Tzu

The main tenants of Taoism were put forth by Lao Tzu and Chuang-Tzu in their writings. The principles of non-action and spontaneity were the most important principles that the Taoists preached, and were central to their understanding of true knowledge. Paradoxically, they believed that knowledge is not to be attained by accumulation of information, but actually by diminishing the quantity of information:

Without stirring abroad / One can know the whole world; / Without looking out the window / One can see the way of heaven. / the further one goes / the less one knows."(Tzu)

From this, the Taoists derived the principle of non-action or stillness, which implied that the way or the "tao" is to be seen by looking deeper into things, rather than by pursuing learning. Non-action was preferred to action because it was believed that meditation and insight were superior to learning:

In the pursuit of learning one knows more every day;

In the pursuit of the way one does less every day.

One does less and less until one does nothing at all, and when one does nothing at all there is nothing that is undone."(48)