The development of classical symphony in Haydn and Beethoven

Classical Symphony

Music, like other forms of art, evolved from numerous traditions that, when taken together, formed a new way of thinking about, and performing, certain types of works. Audiences change over time, and certain musical compositions that sound odd or strange to one audience are often accepted by others (e.g. The rioting during the premier of Stravinsky's Rite of Spring). When people think of classical music, for instance, they tend to think of the three B's (Bach, Beethoven, and Brahms). Certainly, these three giants of music were part of the evolution from the Baroque to the Romantic, each building upon one another's work over two centuries. However, in that time there were numerous other composers who helped develop and forever change harmony, theory, instrumentation, and all manner of musical interpretation. We will begin with an overview of the Baroque era as a basis for our study of the classical symphony, a form that still today tends to define symphonic music for many people. We will then turn to an overview of the transition to the classical era, focusing on Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven in both biographical and stylistic evaluation, and then a brief individual analysis of some of their major works in the symphonic tradition, particularly focusing on their importance to the Viennese "Classical" School, how history, philosophy and politics were reflected in music, and the development and evolution of the symphonic form.

The Baroque

Of the many artists of the Baroque, the music of Johann Sebastian Bach seems to epitomize the era more than any other composer. Bach composed at a time in which the entire philosophical framework of the arts and culture was rapidly changing; worlds had been discovered in faraway places, philosophers and politicians were positing new thoughts, and a radical idea of individual rights and the ability to intellectually transcend the ordinary into the sublime. Many times this was in tandem with religion, but there was also new secularization within the constructs of culture. To understand the composers who came after Bach, we must understand Bach's style -- for it was Bach that began the tradition that would later be embellished by Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven.

We must keep in mind that the historical view of eras is an artificial way of linking trends in art, architecture, and philosophical thought. The Baroque was a style that began to arise out of the Renaissance in the later part of the 16th century, and depending on the medium, lasted until the early 18th century. Most describe it as more florid, dynamic, more emotional and a move away from Renaissance religiosity into more secular thought. However, there were hundreds if not thousands of compositions of a religious nature in the Baroque, and most of the spread of Baroque art, music, and sculpture was a result of the spread of Christianity and the building of new churches. This became even more critical with the Lutheran schism and Protestantism, which tended to emphasize simplicity and a more direct relationship with God. In essence, then, we can look at the Baroque as not just a freer, less religio-centered way of viewing the world, but a mindset that allowed humans to risk more, to explore more, and to do more than utilize Ancient Greece and Rome as the encyclopedia of knowledge and behavior (Friedell, 2009).

Many define this period as the beginnings of the Age of Humanism, not as a strict philosophy, but as a way of learning. For example, in the Middle Ages and early Renaissance learning focused on resolving contradictions between ideas and authors (X said this, Y said that; debate and find which holds truer). Instead, this period in history used a more logical, empiricist approach -- that is, taking known curriculum, apply the principles set forth in X's book or treatise; define what is observable, repeatable, and logical and come up with the truth. In doing so, the interpretation will provide more reliability and accuracy than without a robust examination of the text (See for example: Burkhardt, 1978). It was this environment that formed Bach's musical and philosophical underpinnings, making him a true master of his time.

J.S. Bach lived from 1685 until 1750. He was a prolific composer, organist, harpsichordist, violinist, and teacher. He excelled at counterpoint, harmony and a way to understand music theory in such a way that new rhythms, textures and forms were borrowed from French and Italian Renaissance traditions and turned into a form of evolving music to a more advanced and intellectual state. Much of Bach's music is intellectual, but contains themes from folk music and peasant dances. Bach was a prodigious composer, working in concerti, the keyboard, Passions, Cantatas, Masses, and solo pieces for most of the instruments of the day. He came from a musical family, and also produced a number of talented children who became composers in their own right. His basis of theory and harmony, and some of the "rules" he set up for tonality, were the basis of the classical composers. In fact, Beethoven was so taken with Bach's style; he called him the Urvater der Harmonie, or the "Originator of Harmony" (Lockwood, 2003). Back also lived in a world of transition in which the major powers of Europe were spending huge sums of money exploiting the New World, Africa and Asia. With this came new rivalries, new philosophical ideas, and new tendencies in the way the individual interacted with the State.

The Age of Reason and the Classical Era

The Baroque tended to use harmony and polyphony (multiple harmonies) to express emotion and style. We can visualize this as a simple three or two part interplay, ABA or AB. As the Baroque matured, composers began to give more importance to a single melodic line and the embellished the harmonies in the background. As this evolved into the Classical Period, composers typically used at least two contrasting themes then two variations (or expositions), followed by a second variation of the main them, and then a coda, or ending part that used the major theme as well. The importance of this was that the variations and transitions were seen as part of the overall human condition -- that is birth, maturation, old age and reflection -- again art mimicking philosophy and the manner in which there was interplay between ideas as well as sound (Wright & Simms, 2005).

The other major change between the Baroque and Classical focused on technology -- or the development of more improved instruments and new instruments that helped change the possibilities for composers. The harpsichord, for instance, evolved into the piano-forte and then the piano. Brass instruments evolved with valves and improved techniques; even woodwinds improved with new keys, materials, and techniques -- all acting in a way that would allow more color and tone from the orchestra. As these changes occurred, composers naturally took advantage of the improvements, which then built upon one another to create a larger evolution in compositional techniques and possibilities. Additionally, a fact that is not often discussed is that with increased medical technology, many of the composers lived far longer and had 4-5 decades of productive compositional years, in contrast to previous periods when the average age of death was in the mid-late 40s (McNeese, 2000; Sachs, 2006).

Classical Music as a Reflection of Culture

Artistic periods do not exist in a vacuum, they are, in fact, a product of the culture of the times, the perception of the world held by artists, and the way the artistic mindset affects the listener or viewer. We can think of music as modifying emotions and our perception, and thus changing the way society looks both inward and outward. The Baroque seems to be a transition from the hyper-religiosity of the Middle Ages and Renaissance, moving between the sacred and secular. Many Baroque composers used religious themes to compose some of their most famous works, particularly since there was often a wealthy patron and audience ready and willing to hear such music. Similarly, there was a realization that the human condition could be celebrated in numerous art forms -- like the Water Music from Handle, or the Brandenburg Concerti of Bach. In the Classical Period, though, life was changing and with it, expectations and ideas. The works of Locke and Rousseau, for instance, set the tone for the idea that humans are, by nature, free and equal. Locke's "Theory of the Mind," for instance, seems to be part of the compositional ideas of Haydn, Mozart, and certainly Beethoven in that the individual and relationship to society was open for exploration instead of a predestined approach that came only from religion. The Baroque composer, as reflecting society, celebrated the world through prayer and spiritual awareness. The Classical composer dealt more with the possible, the potential and the way that art, through poetry, painting, literature, sculpture, and most especially through the new medium of combining voice, literature and music, could express the desire for actualization and improvement (Heartz, 2004).

The Symphony as an Art Form

In the Baroque era, the words symphony and sinfonia were used for a large range of compositions that included solo pieces, sonatas, and concertos. Most musical scholars believe that the Italian Overture, popular because of the new rage for opera, used a structure of three contrasting movements -- fast, slow, fast, and was the forerunner of the symphony. Instead of being part of an opera or other piece, the classical symphony was meant to stand alone as a concert performance, with themes and variations that were not necessarily tied to a specific story. The first symphonies were sometimes used as an entr'acte and followed the three movement style. Haydn and Mozart, in fact, composed their earlier symphonies in this style, but allowed them to evolve to a four movement work: 1) opening sonata or allegro; 2) slow movement or adagio; 3) minuet or trio, the scherzo; and 4) an allegro, rondo or sonata. Variations on these movements could occur, and despite being performed all over Europe, it was Haydn (108 symphonies) and Mozart (56 symphonies) who ensured this form would be popular, and became known as the Viennese School. The other significant event that caused the symphony to become more popular was that increased urbanization caused the development of the professional orchestra, which was no longer confined to palaces and cathedrals, but within most urban centers where there were enough professional musicians and enough patrons to support the art. This in turn had a domino effect -- the more orchestras, the more need for music, the more need for composers (The Symphony- An Interactive Guide, 2010; (Steinberg, 1995).

Josef Haydn

Franz Josef Haydn (1732-1809) was one of the most prolific composers of the Classical Era. He is now known as the "Father of the Symphony" because of his contribution to this form and his career as the Court Musician for the Austrian Esterhazy family. Because he was rather isolated geographically, he said he had to become original in his compositions, and thus his style and output reflected the same. Haydn did not have an easy early life, his family was rather poor, and even though he showed a great deal of musical talent, was fired from his Church Music job at age 17. In his early 20s, though, he worked freelance for the Court in Vienna and began to compose operas, symphonies, and other works until he was hired as the Kapellmeister for the Count Morzin, the Prince Paul Anton of the Esterhazy in 1761 until his death. Haydn was a part of the household and lived and followed the family from palace to palace, playing chamber music, teaching, and composing works for special occasions, both religious and secular. What is interesting is that much of Haydn's music seems to follow a literary movement of the late 1700s called Sturm und Drang (Storm and Stress) so that the musical works mimicked the literature of being longer, more expressive, and emotional. After 1781, Haydn was allowed to publish works without the permission of his employer, at which time he experimented with melody and harmony (more use of minor keys) and the use of folk-like material in his serious music. In his later years, Haydn established a practice of rather than churning out piece after piece, he would take his time, edit carefully, and aim for precision and high artistic development -- something that Beethoven would later adopt in homage to Haydn (Larsen, 1982).

Haydn Symphony #99 in E-Flat Major

Haydn's Symphony #99 is the seventh of the 12 London Symphonies. This was written in 1793 in Vienna as Haydn was preparing for his second trip to London. The premier was in February 1794 at the King's Theater in London. The work is scored for 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons, 2 horns, 2 trumpets, timpani and strings; and was the first of Haydn's symphonies to use the clarinet. The movements are a short adagio intro moving to vivace assai (4/4) then to an adagio in ae to a menuetto e trio allegretto ae to the finale vivace 2/4 (Steinberg, pp. 229-34).

I was surprised at the complexity in the opening of the piece. It seemed quite complex and when researching, I found that it was moving to E minor and C minor, which set up an emotional feeling of being "on edge." One could tell that the piece was classical in texture; it had an easy movement from tonic to dominant that is easy to hear, but in between and the interplay of the movements suggested a playfulness that was surprising. I felt like the slow movement was a hymn, but then moved to a more celebratory sound with the use of brass and timpani. The interpretation I used was rather old, a 1966 version by George Szell and the Cleveland Orchestra, was clear, crisp, and one could really discern the unique voices in the orchestra. Unlike some of the earlier works of Haydn, one could almost sense "Beethoven" even from the opening because of the complexity of harmony. Listening to this it is easy to see why Beethoven was influenced by Haydn (Haydn, 1966).

Ludwig Van Beethoven

Beethoven (1770-1827) was a German composer and pianist and the crucial figure of the transition between the European classical and romantic movements. He was an active composer, with his best known works the 9 symphonies, 5 piano concerti, 32 piano sonatas, and 16 string quartets, as well as the now more often performed opera Fidelio. Beethoven came from a musical family and certainly was gifted. By 9 years of age he was sent to be a pupil of the Court Organist in Bonn and by age 13 was already composing. Beethoven lived at a time in which Europe was going through a number of changes based on the Enlightenment philosophy, which also had ramifications of increased support for the arts. In addition, many believe that these philosophical changes resulted in Beethoven's interest in Freemasonry and the Bonn chapter of the Order of the Illuminati (Coope, 2008, p. 15).

In 1787 Beethoven travelled to Vienna with the hopes of studying with Mozart but it is uncertain if they actually met. Beethoven's mother became ill and died, his father lapsing into alcoholism which then meant that Ludwig was responsible for his family. For the next five years he stayed in Bonn, but continued to be influenced by Moazart and Haydn, and by his early 20s had established a reputation as an improvier in the salons of the nobility and as a piano virtuoso. His first serious works were composed when he was in his late 20s, and by the premier of his First Symphony in 1800 he was then well set up in the musical society of Bonn. Unfortunately, by the time he was 26 he began to lose his hearing. Most scholars now think it was a distended inner-ear that caused the affliction. Beethoven lived just outside Vienna and was quite depressed even though his hearing loss did not contribute to stopping his composition. However, over time his hearing loss became so acute that at the premier of the 9th Symphony he had to be turned around to see the applause from the audience (Cooper, pp. 120-2).

The Beethoven Symphonies - #1, 3, 5, 9

Symphony #1 -- This work was likely started in 1795, but not premiered until April 1800. It is clearly Beethoven, with use of more of the wind instruments and sfozandi, but sounds very much like Haydn and Mozart. It is scored much like a Haydn work, 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons, 2 horns, 2 trumpets, timpani and strings. It has four movements; an adagio molto and allegro con brio, then an andante cantabile con molto, a meuetto allegro molto e vivacio, and final and adagio movement also into an allegro. The piece lasts about 25 minutes. Musicologists call the opening of this work a bit of a musical joke because it sounds very much like Mozart's Jupiter Symphony and Haydn's last symphony, but moves in sequence from a dominant-tonic (V-I) sequence that seems "wrong" in that it leads the ear away from the tonic C major (Symphony #1 in C Major, 2004).

Listening to the work on period instruments almost feels like a music lesson. The theme is simple, very classical, easy to remember, but continues to evolve in complexity in the sense that it has more gusto and depth than either Haydn or Mozart. This could possibly be because of the importance of the brass and woodwinds giving the piece more "thickness." Certainly though, it is easy to see that this was not a radical departure from the pieces of the time, but with a clear stamp of Beethoven (Beethoven, 1974).

Symphony #3 -- This work, in E-flat Major, is also known as the Eroica and is characteristic of Beethoven's middle period. Most see it as one of the most mature expressions of the late 18th century classical style, as it was first performed in April 1805. It is scored the same as the First Symphony, with the addition of another timpani and 3 French Horns rather than two. It has four movements; allegro con brio, Marcia funebre, scherzo and a final allegro molto. The piece opens with two large E-flat major chords and establishes the tone of the piece with the theme coming in by the 5th measure. It was originally written as a dedication to Napoleon Bonaparte because Beethoven admired Bonaparte as the logical successor to the ideals of the French Revolution. However, when Napoleon proclaimed himself Emperor of France, Beethoven scratched his name off the score, but titled it a heroic symphony dedicated to the memory of a great man. The piece is twice as long as any symphony by Haydn or Mozart and is far more emotional than anything written in the pure classical era (Why the Eroica?, 2006).

The recording I chose was the Vienna Philharmonic conducted by Leonard Bernstein, recorded in the early 1970s. This seemed ideal because of the musical tradition of the orchestra and the extreme emotionality of Bernstein. It is easy to see why this piece seems more evolved than Beethoven's earlier works -- there is interplay between tonality and snippets of louder emotionality. Despite the popularity of the work, I found the 2nd movement to be the most moving. The recording was so powerful it literally brought chills to me; one can hear the pathos and longing that Beethoven felt, and perhaps even the disillusionment he had between the ideals of the Enlightenment and the turmoil of Europe in the early 1800s (Beethoven, 1973).

Symphony #5 -- Beethoven's Symphony #5 in C minor was written between 1804 and 1808 and is one of the most popular and best known compositions in classical music and one of the most frequently played symphonies even in the modern repertoire. It was first performed in Vienna in 1808 and its theme of a four-note "short-short-short-long" appears in a number of popular works, films, and even electronic dance music:

The Fifth Symphony took a long time to come to fruition, being interrupted by Fidelio, several piano sonatas, string quartets, the Violin Concerto and the Fourth Piano Concerto. Ironically, both the 5th and 6th symphonies premiered at the same concert. By this time, Beethoven was experiencing increased deafness and was depressed by the political turmoil in Austria, the Napoleonic Wars, and the occupation of Vienna by French troops in 1805. The work is scored for a larger orchestra, adding a piccolo, contrabassoon, and three trombones to his typical orchestration. The work is in four movements; Allegro con brio, Andante con molto, Scherzo allegro, and finally an Allegro (Beethoven's Symphony #5 - The Destiny Symphony, 2004).

To my mind, the 5th seems like a continuation of the 3rd Symphony. The idea of destiny seems to come from Beethoven's biography, but has become so engrained in popular culture that one can really hear destiny knocking at the door. They key of C minor seems to keep the listener on edge, and one can hear that Beethoven remained in turmoil while writing this work. The work is active, almost revolutionary, and seems more of a testament to an inner revolutionary feeling. It is probably no accident that he extended the orchestra to include the trombone and piccolo to make the change from the darker moments to a brighter, more celebratory finale even more dramatic. To me, the piece is one grand struggle -- from the opening theme through the variations and sadness of life, to a final triumphant resolution (Beethoven, 2012).

Symphony #9 - Opus 125 in D minor, this is the final complete symphony of Beethoven. It was completed in 1924 and is one of the great pieces of western music and the first time a major composer used voices in a symphony. The words are sung in the final movement by four vocal soloists and chorus, using a poem "Ode to Joy" written in 1785 by Friedrich Schiller and revised in 1803. The work was originally commissioned by the Philharmonic Society of London, but premiered in May 1824 in Vienna along with two other pieces. It was Beethoven's first on-stage appearance in 12 years. By this time, he was totally deaf, and sat by the stage giving tempos. The audience was ecstatic at the end of the piece, and at least Beethoven could see the excitement of the audience. To the orchestra of the 5th symphony, Beethoven added Bass drum, Triangle, Cymbals, a Soprano, Alto, Tenor and Bass and SATB Choir. It is in four movements but changes the usual pattern of the classical symphony by placing the Scherzo as the 2nd movement. It is market as allegro ma no troppo, scherzo, adagio molto e cantabile, and then the 4th movement comprising over a dozen tempo changes, finally ending with the famous Ode to Joy with full orchestra and chorus (Beethoven's 9th Symphony. The Ode to Joy, 2004).