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¶ … academic progress for American students: The Brown Report, and a report by the national Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP).
According to NAEP, reading scores over the decade stayed essentially the same, showing declines in the early years but gains later on. However, from 1994 on the trend was modestly upward. However, another analysis of the statistics suggested that reading gains are beginning to slow.
Math scores showed more significant gains than reading. The authors note that it is difficult to compare test scores between 1990 and 2000 in math because the curriculum shifted significantly during that time to programs including skill areas such as geometry and statistics at an earlier grade. The two tests were as a result significantly different.
The authors report that math curriculum continues to grow and change, with current thought that the curriculum should reflect real world applications for concepts taught. They also note a national commitment to some kind of accountability for education. Comparing American performance to other countries, U.S. students were approximately in the middle. The researchers looked at the many factors that might affect student performance over time.
One significant difficulty with this report is that to some extent it compares apples with oranges: math curriculum has shifted over time, significantly changing the content of tests. Most people are in favor of finding some accurate way to measure student performance, but this is particularly difficult in mathematics where the instructional curriculum is still in flux. In addition, while we want a national measure of achievement, we do not have a national curriculum. No doubt many school districts are still using older styles of instruction while others have moved on to programs that begin introducing algebraic, geometrical, statistical concepts as early as kindergarten. It leaves the reader wondering whether one test can be used to measure progress in the presence of such diversity.
This idea of guidance is important; children need the framework and support to expand their ZPD. Since the ZPD defines the skills and abilities that children are in the process of developing, there is also a range of development that we might call a "stretch goal"(Mooney). For Vygotsky, supplying the child with a combination of theoretical and empirical learning methods is a more robust way to ensure cognition. This leads
There are advantages and disadvantages to the theory of constructivism. On the positive side, it means that children are ferocious learners because they have the innate neural tools in place to properly absorb and classify information. Piaget would argue that children need only be given the stimuli -- environment, information or other factors -- at the appropriate time when a child's brain is ready to absorb information. Piaget suggested that learning
Firstly, there is exposure to a model, which however does not necessarily facilitate learning. This is followed by knowledge of the model's behavior and the results of that behavior and finally the acceptance or rejection of the model by the individual as a guide to his or her actions (Weiner, 1980, p. 230). In this regard one can refer back as well to the work of Tarde who suggested
The whole language method of teaching reading, versus phonics instruction, is a common use of constructivist theory (Chen, 2010, Social constructivist). Cognitive theories As the structures of the human mind began to become better understood in the 20th century, cognitivism became a popular learning theory. It suggests that by understanding how the mind works, teachers are better able to enable students to learn. Assumptions of this approach include the idea that
The message from this simple analysis is clear: people interpret reality in different way ways. In Bandura's view, internal reinforcement is a potent force for enhancing or bolstering the mental states of individuals. Hence a feeling of pride, satisfaction and accomplishment helps both to enhance the individual's cognitive development as well as the learning process. 3. Learning does not always precipitate change in behavior. In other words, people do not
Psychodynamic Theory, Learning Theory, and Social Exchange Theory in Group Settings Some groups seem to hit it off right from the start and achieve their goals in good order, while other groups tend to become mired in personality conflicts and infighting to the extent that nothing is ever achieved. To determine the differences, this paper provides a review of the relevant literature concerning three different types of theories, psychodynamic theory,