Daryl Bem, Ph.D.

Daryl Bem Daryl J. Bem, Ph.D. is a social psychologist who formulated the self -- perception theory as it relates to attitude change in attitude development. He has exhibited many research interests in his career but is also notable for theories regarding the development of attitudes, sexual orientation, and research attempting to demonstrate the legitimacy of such parapsychological phenomena as ESP.

This paper discusses his early life, educational background, his major academic influences during his training, the political and cultural climate that occurred during his upbringing, and his major academic contributions and published works. Dr. Bem's Education, Personal Life, and Employment History Dr. Bem was born on June 10, 1938 in Denver, Colorado (Bem, 2001). Dr. Bem has two siblings: brother and a sister. Dr.

Bem's father, Darwin Bem, owned a small manufacturing company named the Colorado Badge and Trophy Company in the city of Denver, Colorado and his mother was a traditional stay-at-home mother. The Bems were a middle-class family and it appears that there were no major unusual events occurring in his upbringing based on the time of his childhood (Bem, 2001). There is a story that when Ben was six years old he was given a magic set as a gift from his aunt and uncle.

He had an interest in magic and while in high school he apparently observed the vaudeville magician, Joseph Dunninger, on a television program. Part of Dunninger's magic act was to "read minds" (Bem, 2001). Apparently Dr. Bem's interest in magic and this particular experience led to a lifelong sub-career as a magician and mentalist. Moreover, it also led to a later interest of Bem to produce empirical investigations attempting to confirm the legitimacy of parapsychological phenomena such as ESP. Education and Zeitgeist Dr.

Bem attended East Denver high school and graduated in 1956 (Bem, 2001). He then attended Reed College in Oregon where he majored in physics and graduated in 1960 with a bachelor's degree in physics (Bem, 2001). Following his graduation from Reed College Dr. Bem was accepted into the graduate program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in physics; however, he only remained in that program for one year. It was during the 1960s that the Civil Rights movement began to gain momentum and this movement influenced the young Bem.

Fascinated by the changing attitudes of the 1960s he decided to switch his field of study to social psychology. He was accepted into the prestigious social psychology program at the University of Michigan and received his Ph.D. In social psychology in 1964 (Bem. 2001). Dr. Bem, like many young academics, was heavily influenced by the Zeitgeist of the 1960s.

During this time the entire country found itself caught in social and cultural revolutions as well as major changes in political climate due to the Vietnam War, changes in music, movements by university students to affect political and social change, etc. Much of his research and his major research interests reflect the values of these changing times. Moreover, Dr. Bem was heavily influenced by the distinguished staff of social psychologists at the University of Michigan in the 1960s that included individuals like Walter E. Kogan and Robert Zajonc.

These individuals were extremely interested in studying such things as attitude formation, decision-making, and social influences on decision-making and left a lasting impression on Dr. Bem and his academic focus (Bem, 2001). Upon completing his Ph.D. Bem became an assistant professor at Carnegie -- Mellon University from 1964 to 1971. He then went to Stanford University and worked as an assistant professor from 1971 to 1978 and from there he moved on and became a professor of psychology at Cornell University from 1978 to 2007 when he retired, but continued his research until 2011. Dr.

Bem was also a visiting professor of psychology at Harvard University in 1987 to 1980 (Bem, 2001). While he was a professor at Carnegie-Mellon University Dr. Bem met psychology student Sandra Ruth Lipsitz, who would later become a well -- known researcher herself and whom he would later marry and have two children with. The interesting thing about this marriage is that Dr. Bem has always admitted to being gay and his wife, a professor of developmental psychology, engaged in a long- term lesbian relationship upon their separation.

The Bems have described their marriage and frontal style as being open, liberal, and uninhibited, again indicating the influence of the 1960s on Dr. Bem and his family (Bem, 2001). Bem's Major Research and Theories Dr. Bem has produced a number of significant peer-reviewed research articles on theories regarding sexual orientation, attitude formation, parapsychological phenomena, social judgment, self-perception, the psychological roots of discrimination, and prejudice.

This section will look at his three major areas of research: (1) the development of sexual orientation, (2) self -- perception theory, and (3) research into ESP and other parapsychological phenomena. Sexual Orientation As mentioned above Dr. Bem has openly admitted to being gay for many years and it is only natural for such an individual growing up in the 50s and 60s to have developed some of their own personal constructs regarding how one acquires their sexual orientation.

In his classic explanation of sexual orientation Bem (1996) deduced that individuals become sexually or romantically attracted to individuals who they perceive as being different (exotic) in childhood and adolescence. Bem (1996) hypothesized that there was a series of events that occurred in a temporal order that led to sexual attraction/sexual orientation and individuals: 1. The first series of events occurs prenatally and consists of hormones that the fetus is exposed to in utero.

These particular hormones are not necessarily involved in sexual orientation but are more involved in temperamental factors that the person will express after birth. 2. These particular temperaments predispose individuals towards certain behaviors. Some children will engage in activities that are more male -- typical, whereas others will engage in activities that are more female -- typical. As a result of these temperaments directing behavior children will seek out playmates that enjoy the same types of behaviors.

Bem (1996; 1998) notes that those children that prefer the typical activities and same-sex playmates are gender -- conforming in those who favor a typical activities and opposite -- sex friends are gender -- nonconforming. 3. The above choices/events result in gender -- conforming children to view their opposite -- sex counterparts as exotic and unfamiliar. These children are viewed as different. Gender -- nonconforming children view their same -- sex counterparts as exotic and unfamiliar. 4. As a result of the previous steps the feelings of unfamiliarity lead to heightened physiological arousal.

Bem believe that this arousal was generalized and not specific or volitional. Males may typically feel apathetic towards females, whereas females that are typical may feel timid towards males. 5. In time the physiological arousal that one feels towards the non-peer group becomes transformed into an erotic attraction. The person's sexual orientation develops based on these self -- perceptions. Thus, Bem's theory explains the development of sexual orientation/sexual attraction in both heterosexual and homosexual individuals.

Part of the criticism of Bem's "Exotic becomes Erotic" theory is that childhood experiences are given too much weight compared to inherent factors such as genetics and this could lead to blame for sexual orientation being placed on bad parenting or other environmental factors (Peplau et al.1998). Bem (1998) countered that biological theories of sexual orientation did not out for a developmental aspect into the construct of sexual attraction and supported his theory with empirical evidence (Bem, 2001).

Several of Bem's ideas regarding the development of sexual orientation have endured and spite of a more current biological approach to human sexuality. Self -- Perception Theory One of the most prevailing theories in social psychology is the theory of cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957).

The notion of cognitive dissonance assumes that individuals attempt to maintain an internal state of homeostasis and will try to reduce any mental stress or discomfort (dissonance) that occurs when one holds two or more beliefs that are contradictory or performs a behavior that is in direct contrast to a belief. The theory has been used to explain many odd findings in the research. For example in a classic study Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) had individuals perform a boring task.

One group of individuals was paid a large sum ($20 in 1959 went a lot further than it does today) to perform the task and the other was only paid one dollar. Common sense would dictate that the people that were paid the $20 would state that they enjoyed the task more; however, the opposite was found: people who were paid only one dollar claimed they enjoyed the task more.

The theory of cognitive dissonance explains that individuals who were paid more money could simply say they did the boring task for the money, whereas those who were paid only one dollar developed internal dissonance and had to explain why they performed the task (thus, they believe that they must have liked the task in order to perform it for only one dollar). Bem was a critic of cognitive dissonance theory. He designed a replication of the original Festinger & Carlsmith (1959) study.

In Bem's (1967) version participants listened to a tape recorded description of the cognitive dissonance experiment of a man enthusiastically describing the boring task. Some of the experimental participants were told that the man had been paid $20 for his description, whereas another group of participants was told that the man only been paid one dollar for his description. Thus, there was no dissonance created in the participants of the experiment; however, the results were still the same.

Those that had heard the description of that the man had been paid one dollar believed that he must have liked the task more than the man was paid $20. Bem concluded that the participants in this experiment were able to infer the attitude of the actor and also concluded that it is possible that people in the original Festinger/Carlsmith also inferred their attitudes by observing their own behavior.

Those that were paid the $20 observed that they were well-paid, whereas those that only get one dollar observed that they were performing a boring task for nothing and therefore they must like the task. Bem concluded that the results of cognitive dissonance experiments were simply examples of self -- perception where the actors were observing their own behavior. Bem's self -- perception theory proposes that people develop their attitudes by observing how they act.

If they observe themselves acting a certain way then they must conclude that those actions are reflective of their attitudes (Bem, 1972). He later applied this theory to the development of sexual orientation. While the two theories appear to explain the same phenomenon they are indeed different. Bem concluded that self that perception theory was more parsimonious than cognitive dissonance and therefore more applicable (Bem, 1972). However, research has indicated that perhaps both theories are applicable depending on the circumstances.

One proposed explanation is that cognitive dissonance theory explains how people change or develop attitudes when they have conflicting values or conflicting beliefs and behaviors, whereas self -- perception theory is an explanation of how people may develop their attitudes initially (see Meyers, 2010). Parapsychology The ganzfeld procedure has been used to provide evidence of ESP (Hyman & Honorton, 1986). During the procedure a "receiver" is placed in a separate room with headphones playing static and eye coverings.

A "sender" observes a target of some type and tries to send messages to the receiver. The receiver speaks out loud during the experimental session describing what they see. An experimental blind to the targets records the responses. When a receiver achieves over better than chance results this is interpreted as evidence for ESP; however, this particular experiment resulted in quite a bit of controversy in research.

Positive findings have been scrutinized by researchers and explanations ranging from poor methodology to nonsignificant chance findings dominated the psychological literature with regard to this procedure. As mentioned above Bem and a longtime supporter of many parapsychological phenomena and Bem & Honorton (1994) performed a meta-analysis on studies of the ganzfeld procedure. Their results indicated a statistically significant hit rate of well over 30% (chance rates would be 25% in the four-choice paradigm). Bem and Honorton (1994) concluded that overall the studies of the ganzfeld procedure did provide evidence for the existence of ESP.

Of course this particular paper resulted in quite a bit of controversy and as it turns out Bem and Honorton actually had errors in their meta-analytic calculations. Milton and Wiseman (1999) carried out their own method -- analysis of ganzfeld experiments and the found no effect beyond chance levels. This research is been hashed over and over again in the general finding is that the results are not significantly greater than chance.

Moreover, other researchers have looked at the so-called successes in ganzfeld experiments and have criticized them based on a lack of understanding as to how probability theory and significance testing work. For example, in an unbiased coin toss the probability of getting either ahead or a tail is .50. If one person tossed a coin eight times the probability that person would get eight heads (or tails) is 2(.5)8 which works out to 1 in 128.

If 50 people flip a coin eight times the probability that at least one of them would get all heads or all tails is 32.44% (Runyon, Coleman, & Pittenger, 2000). Thus, in procedures where strings of correct responses are higher than the probability of a correct response in a single trial, more stringent criteria need to be applied in order to determine what performance is significantly different from chance and what performances are not.

Despite all of the criticisms of the ganzfeld procedure and of Bem's support for the notion of ESP and his believe in the legitimacy of parapsychological phenomena is still strong. In 2011 Bem published a paper that reflected this conviction. Bem (2011) described nine at different experiments on over 1000 participants all of which revealed significant evidence of ESP (even though the magnitude of the evidence was slight). All of these experiments were variations of classic experiments in psychology that Bem approached in a different manner.

Bem reversed the established protocols for psychological experiments such as recall facilitation and affective priming so that the cause now became the effect. For example, Bem would have students try to remember as many words as possible from a list of words. Then the participants would be required to type a random selection of words from the same list.

Bem (2011) found that the participants had greater recall for words that they would later type, a finding that has no conventional explanation in learning and memory psychology or in any other severity of psychology. Bem (2011) concluded that this was evidence for precognition (ESP or PSI). Other experiments produced similar results that Bem interpreted as evidence for precognition.

However, other researchers investigated Bem's methodologies and found that there were serious flaws in the methods such as not using the applicable statistical cut off criteria or changing procedures in the middle of an experiment. Moreover, attempts to replicate Bem's findings have all failed (e.g., Ritchie, Wiseman, & French, 2012). Thus, while Bem's research regarding ESP and parapsychology has received much attention, his findings have not been replicated and his beliefs regarding these abilities have been looked upon by mainstream researchers in psychology and other fields as dubious at least.

Conclusion Dr. Bem has established himself as a major figure in the field of social psychology and the development of personality attributes such as attitudes and sexual orientation. He has published major works in many different areas of psychology ranging from self -- perception to discrimination and prejudice. Not all of his research and theories have been accepted by his peers in academia; however, his research has always stimulated others to think and consider long -- held beliefs.

While his research into ESP may reflect his weakest attempts to formulate reliable and valid constructs, that particular research and his other research has stimulated much thought and resulted in subsequent research to refine his ideas. In the end, that is exactly what a researcher is supposed to contribute. Annotated Bibliography Bem, D.J. (1967). Self-Perception: An Alternative Interpretation of Cognitive Dissonance Phenomena. Psychological Review, 74, 183-200. In this study Bem proposes and alternative explanation for cognitive dissonance theory.

He described self -- perception as an individual's ability to respond in different ways to their own behavior. Bem then replicated the three major paradigms used in cognitive dissonance research: (A) the forced choice paradigm, (B) the forced compliance paradigm, and (C) exposure to information paradigm using participants as observers as opposed to actors. The results are very similar to the results of the original cognitive dissonance findings in these paradigms; however, Bem's participants could not have experienced any cognitive dissonance because they observed others in these experiments.

Bem reports that these contrasting methods with very similar outcomes to the findings of classical cognitive dissonance studies indicates that cognitive dissonance is neither necessary or sufficient to explain behaviors and that self -- perception theory is more parsimonious. Bem, D.J. (1998). Is EBE theory supported by the evidence? Is it androcentric? A reply to Peplau et al. Psychological Review, 105(2), 395 -- 398.

Bem's theory regarding the development of sexual orientation, the Exotic Becomes Erotic, theory was staunchly criticized as ignoring inherent factors such as biological mechanisms for determining sexual orientation and also for not explaining the development of sexual orientation and women. Bem responded to these criticisms by offering more data and further clarification. First, Bem countered this argument by citing research that demonstrated that.