Donald Super\'s Life Span Theory

Donald E. Super

The Life-Span theory of career development, developed by D.E. Super in 1953, is a highly useful tool for understanding career choice and development across the lifespan. The theory sees career development as a series of steps that begin with the development of self-concept, and end with retirement, although these steps can sometimes be juxtaposed during the life cycle. In the decades since Super's theory was first developed, it has remained topical, respected, and useful in career development counseling. However, the theory's limited consideration of individual factors and socioeconomic factors make it the most useful when used in conjunction with other approaches to career development.

Overview of Life-Span Theory number of key figures helped to shape Super's Life-Span theory of career development. These included Hull, Thorndike, and Bandura, who helped to shape the major focus of the theory toward an understanding of the distinct life roles of the individual, and that personality and interests could change across the life span, rather than just the first few decades of life (Super, Savickas, and Super, 1996).

The basic assumption that underlies Super's theory is that individuals change as they mature. Further, Super's theory is built on an understanding of self-concept, which "develops through physical and mental growth, observations of work, identification with working adults, general environment, and general experiences" (Zunker, p. 30).

Super's theory formalizes stages and developmental tasks over an individual's life. In summary, his five stages are: 1) growth, where self-concept is formed (birth to age 14 or 15), 2) exploratory, where individuals collect information about careers (age 14 to 24) 3) establishment, where skills are guilt and work experienced is gained (age 25-44), 4) maintenance, where continual adjustment is ongoing (age 45-64) and 5) decline, where output is reduced and the individual prepares for retirement (age 65 and over) (Super, 1953). Throughout life, stages can occur in cycles and recycles as individuals adjust to changes and trends in the workforce. In addition, vocational development stages include crystallization, specification, implementation, stabilization, and consolidation (Super, Savickas, and Super, 1996).

The theory ultimately predicts that individuals will spend the majority of their working lives in the maintenance stage of career development. Career maturity occurs when the individual successfully accomplishes age and developmental tasks. However, according to life-span theory, individuals may move about through the five stages throughout their lives. As such, a middle-aged individual who has been downsized from their corporation in stage 4 may suddenly find themselves reevaluating their career choices, and find themselves again in an exploratory stage (stage 2).

Working with clients using the Life-Span Theory of Career Development is a relatively straightforward process. A battery of vocational and other tests are available for individuals in the first two stages. Further, assessing career maturity is important, as an understanding of the client's stage of development is helpful for both clients and counselors seeking to assist in career counseling.

Super's Life-span theory does have a number of limitations. It does not necessarily consider the powerful role of social factors like career prestige in choosing an occupation. Further, it may not adequately allow for the socioeconomic motivations like culture and family background create a situation where many people simply "fall into" specific careers because these work opportunities present themselves (Sharf). In essence, Super's theory may suffer because it fails to adequately consider individual characteristics and the characteristics of specific occupations.

Review of the Literature

As noted earlier, Super's Life-Span theory of career development has its roots in the work of a number of influential psychologists. His work is likely-based partly on Parson's understanding of vocational choices as based on an individual's match between abilities and work best suited for those abilities (American Psychological Association). Hull, who argued that theories must be based on explicitly states assumptions, and that Edwin Thorndike, who developed major laws of learning (Gredler) were likely influences. In addition, Bandura, known for the development of social learning theory (Gredler) likely influenced Super's work.

Since the original publication of Super's theories, a great deal resources have been developed that are designed to help young people develop an understanding of self-concept. A number of psychometric measures, including vocational tests, intelligence and academic aptitude tests, and personality inventories are available as aids to defining self-concept.

Over time, the ideas contained within Super's Life-Span theory have been expanded to include personality topology theories where personality types determine career choices. Other career development theories have tended to focus on other aspects underlying career choice and development. Krumboltz' Social learning theory of career selection suggests that career choices result from an outcome of learned responses that exist during a life time. Other career choice theories focus on career choices in the contest of the social status of specific occupations. Further, the human capital theory suggests that occupational selection is based on calculations of the investment of human capital and returns on that investment (Marini and Brinton, 1984).