Early College as Educational Reform

High School Dual Programs

Current social, political, and cultural concerns have hastened the call for high school reform and have intensified an interest in producing high school graduates that are college ready (Kuo, 2010). Competition from up-and-coming economies such as China and India have challenged traditional American economic world dominance and are forcing policy makers to be concerned about making substantive changes in the educational system (Kuo, 2010). However, when positive attempts are made to reform high schools, they often are not sustained due to the fact that the people who initiated the changes moved on and the system reverted back to the way it was prior to the reform effort (Hamann, 2005). Thus, there is the need for wider-ranging changes in education.

Twenty-first century educational reform efforts will need to address three emerging issues related to the American educational system: globalization, the continuity of the system, and the wasted senior year. One answer to addressing these issues is the implementation of early college programs in schools. Early college programs (or dual enrollment programs in high schools) are a comparatively new reform effort and are a rapidly growing option that currently enrolls more than approximately 47,000 students nationwide (Steinberg, Johnson, & Pennington, 2006). The early dual enrollment programs were created to offer a head start for academically advanced students; however, more recent programs also target underrepresented and underserved students in an effort to offer them with a path to a postsecondary degree (Kuo, 2010). The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (hereafter referred to as the Gates Foundation) has been a major backer for early college programs and has provided funding for many of the early college schools throughout the nation. Dropout rates in schools have been a particular concern and the hope has been that downsizing schools in terms of size and offering more practical dual programs will combat this situation.

Dual Programs and Dropout Rates

Transitions represent a vulnerable time, and this is particularly true for middle school aged adolescents. The move from a smaller personalized school to a larger, more impersonal, high school environment can lead to the beginnings of the student's disengagement from school. The high school dropout predicament is especially acute in between the ninth and tenth grades (Cohen & Smerdon, 2009). National figures indicate that more students fail the ninth grade than any other grade and students from low-income populations demonstrate as high as a 40% dropout rate after ninth grade (Steinberg et al., 2006). But schools that provide summer programs that are designed for students who are in need additional academic support before they enter high school are more successful in decreasing course failures and dropout rates (Cohen & Smerdon, 2009). Thus, smaller, more intimate classroom environments may protect against dropping out (Steinberg et al., 2006).

Patterson, Beltyukova, Berman, and Francis (2007) looked at potential ways to deal with the "freshman bulge," which describes the increase in freshmen who are held back in many urban schools. This leads to higher dropout rates for this class and more frustration, tensions, and poorer attitudes for incoming freshmen in high schools. Patterson et al. randomly placed 50 freshmen in smaller learning communities (SLCs). This group spent their school day with their cohort of 50 and shared the same four core teachers and the same gym teacher. Results indicated that significantly more SLC stated they were rarely bored at school and that their teachers helped them when they did not understand material than the rest of the freshman class. Significantly fewer SLC students disagreed that teachers blamed students when they did not understand, disagreed that teachers treated all students respectively and were fair to all students when they broke rules. The SLC students had significantly fewer in-school suspensions than their peers, fewer unexcused absences, and higher promotion rates than the control group. GPA for science was higher for the SCL students (but fell over the term), social studies GPA was higher for the control group, and math and English GPAs were not different. Thus, the SCL program appeared to affect discipline, promotion, and attendance, but not grades. Nonetheless the SCL program was considered a relative success.

However, despite the recognized need and the funding for these programs the research has been mixed regarding their effectiveness. For instance many urban high schools suffer from high dropout rates, poor academic performances by the students, a feeling of alienation between students and teachers, and overall blight. Huebner and Corbett (2004) noted that national graduation figures indicated that only 68% of students entering high school earn a diploma. This graduation rate is even lower for students from underserved groups. For example Black and Hispanic students have a little more than a 50% chance of graduating from high school (see also Jackson, 2004). Looking at five different smaller school programs (see below) they characterized the features of smaller more intimate programs that were fostering better teacher student relations and increasing the rates of graduation:

1. The programs were socioeconomically ethnically diverse.

2. Highly sought after by students of all abilities (some preliminary data indicated that low ability students were increasing their reading skills).

3. Programs are reengaging and rigorous.

4. Offer supportive learning environments.

5. Students are highly engaged in learning.

6. Standardized tests results indicated students were performing well academically.

Regarding the last point, studies of students in the Boston MA program indicated a drastic rise in the number of students whose reading and math skills reached grade level after only a short time in the program (Huebner & Corbett, 2004); however, other programs demonstrated more modest or no such gains.

Huebner (2005) reported on the New Schools Initiative in New York City funded in part by the Gates Foundation that attempted to downsize many high schools into smaller, more intimate schools. The transition from larger to smaller public school in New York City was designed to facilitate leadership supporting more effective instruction to students, create a mission that students, teachers, and administrators could relate to and support while at the same time fostering high and clear expectations for all students, caring relationships between students and teachers, and utilizes qualified teachers (Jackson, 2004). Preliminary data from the early initiative indicated that there were significantly higher attendance rates and a significant increase in the rate of students being promoted from the ninth to tenth grade. However, reading and math achievement scores still remained below expectation. Further research was needed to follow students and to understand how to deal with issues such as ESL students, cultural competency, and fostering relationships with large state and city organizations.

Lewis (2004) discussed the difference between many of the goals of the small school programs (relationship development, attendance rate increases) and the Ready or Not: Creating a High School Diploma That Counts report released by the American Diploma Project. This report defined student success solely in terms of meeting high academic standards, standardized standards (if that is not redundant) that would apply to all states. The claim is that a high school diploma in the U.S. lacks value as it does not prepare students for careers or for college. In discussing those students attempting to take college courses in high school she points out that it may require more time for them to graduate from high school, which would officially place these programs on the government needs improvement list. Moreover, the grades of students in these programs are not improved over traditional high school programs.

Other Benefits of Dual Programs and SLC-type Programs

Toch, Jerald, and Dillon (2007) reviewed the findings of the Gates Foundation regarding its development and funding of small learning communities. Findings indicated there were improvements in creating a personalized, caring climate but only mildly positive increases in reading scores and no other academic gains. Other gains such as better prepared students were noted; however, dropout rates did not seem affected significantly. The research also suggested that more rigorous curricula and higher graduation standards might be beneficial as opposed to detrimental to students.

According to Jordan, Cavalluzzo and Corallo (2006) The Education Commission of the States and the Bridge Project at Stanford University have supported dual enrollment programs as being practical methods to improve the quality of a student's high school experience and to help students bridge the transition from high school to college. Jordan et al. conducted two-day visits to five sites in the U.S. where these programs are in effect and the students take high school and community college classes. Based on Jordan et al.'s (2006) background research the benefits of these programs appear speculative and there is no mention of increased grades or skills for students in these programs. The reported mean GPAs for students entering these programs are not impressive (Jordan et al., 2006). The rest of the data is qualitative in nature, and interesting choice considering there is little evidence from quantitative students that these programs benefit learning in students (Rycik, 2007). At each site the authors performed a series of individual interviews or focus group discussions with faculty, administrators, counselors, teachers, students, and parents. The researchers also examined a number of district, program, and college documents and described the components of a successful program as being: located on a community college campus, having caring relationships between staff and students, smaller in size, and focused on activities that were clearly related to higher education or students' later career choices. Variables in the programs associated with effective schools in general were solid leadership, an environment conducive to learning, clear goals, high expectations, collaborative planning time, collegial relationships, and a strong sense of community. The researchers noted there was a strong belief among interviewees that dual programs were successful at improving student achievement and motivation; however, rigorous statistical evidence of these programs' was in most cases nonexistent. Thus, the qualitative research lacked the foundation of a solid quantitative support.

A Harsh Critique

Rycik (2007) noted that reform efforts for secondary education have traditionally been primarily aimed on making more demands of high school students and their teachers, "raising the bar" so to speak such as college preparatory courses and college courses. However, these types of targeted reforms have not been successful. For instance, the once popular No Child Left Behind Act met with disfavor with many republicans because the mandates requiring testing have not led to better quality of education in the schools. Rycik cites research that indicates that these testing mandates appear to have narrowed school curriculums towards what is covered on the tests, discouraging innovation, and led to less attention aimed at gifted and talented students. Moreover, Rycik (2007) presents evidence that high school dropout rates are much higher than anticipated with more than a third of students failing to graduate from the nation's top 100 districts. Reasons for dropping out seem to vary with the majority of students citing a lack of motivation as the reason for dropping out and not feeling challenged or a lack of real world simulation in classes.

Rycik (2007) also reported data from U.S. Department of Education that even though U.S. high school students (seniors) appear to be tackling harder subject matter in school and are getting better grades in classes they are performing more poorly in basic skills such as reading and learning less than seniors prior to 1992. The information was based on the results from high school seniors on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) conducted in 2005 indicating that 12th grade reading scores have decreasing since 1992 and that less than 25% of 12th grade seniors performed in the proficient range in math. Interestingly the NAEP results were contrasted with a study of high school transcripts that showed that graduates in 2005 had more high school credits, taken more college preparatory classes, and obtained statistically significantly higher GPAs than students in the 1990s. Moreover, the difference between proficiency levels of white students and minority students has not changed despite all of the efforts to close the gap. The analyses implied that the grades obtained in the supposedly the higher level courses by the students were inflated.

Rycik (2007) also suggests that perhaps the notion of standardized education is a flawed one. This may lead to the externally imposed structural changes and accountability measures in schools having a limited impact on student learning. Rycik's solution is that perhaps less standardization would lead to greater learning. The issue is can learning work when it is based on the preferences of students? Do students benefit from a high school curriculum is developmentally and culturally relevant or national and measurable? Is the recent observation that even third world countries outperform U.S. students in math and science going to motivate current educators to realize that perhaps the focus of public education in today's school is lacking (Pett, 2005). The major issue debated here is what are the acceptable standards for high school graduates to be judged by? Clearly academic issues must comprise the standards and attendance and promotions or graduation rates should be a reflection of performing within such guidelines. Keeping this in mind, much of the research on dual programs has been qualitative and looks at the attitudes and perceptions of students, parents, and school officials as opposed to objective outcome measures.

Qualitative Research

Cooper (2009) noted that the achievement ideology, the notion that individual success is based on the characteristics and motivation of the individual, did not apply to educational attainment, especially for minority students who find many cultural and societal barriers to attaining their educational dreams. Using data from the Educational Longitudinal Study of 2002 530 students were evaluated in the 10th grade (2002) and again in 2004 when most were 12th graders. Data from a third wave in 2007 two years after scheduled high school graduation was not reported in this study.

The data was collected from the students and their high school records (transcripts, test scores), parents, teachers, and schools regarding the development of students' postsecondary educational aspirations between 10th and 12th grade and their progress relative to these goals in 2007. The relevant findings indicated that 76% of the students expected to obtain a bachelors degree in 2002. One half of those students still maintained this expectation in 2004 and 12% increased this aspiration to a graduate degree, whereas over all about a third of the students decreased their aspirations. Asian students tended to maintain high aspirations, whereas African-American and Latino males demonstrated the highest levels of decreases in aspirations from the 10th to 12th grade. Economic variables appeared to be unrelated to 12th grade aspirations. Females tended to have higher aspirations than males. Interestingly, the research did not include GPA as a predictive variable, thus they did not consider the performance of the student in school as a predictor of aspirations. Cooper did find that students enrolled in general and vocational courses as opposed to college preparatory courses and those with poor math achievement were less likely to aspire to a college degree of any type when they were in the 12th grade. Cooper does suggest that to raise and to maintain students' postsecondary educational aspirations, high school reform policies should be linked to college awareness and college preparatory activities. However, would such students pursue these activities? While the study does shed some light on the trends in aspirations, it omits some relatively strong potential predictor variables.

Thompson and Ongaga (2011) looked at a particular early college program at Hudson Early College High School (HECHS) located in Southeastern North Carolina that partners with a local university. Their purpose was to gain insight into the everyday workings and student and teacher relationships at the early college high school. These researchers followed the Noddings' (1995)8 ethics of care that asserts that the primary goal of education is the development of empathetic and caring individuals. They argue that small, personalized "learning communities" can foster these views and also further solid academic gains. The authors collected their data via individual and focus group interviews with both students (n = 16) and teachers (except for math teachers; n = 5) over a three-month period. The focus was on relationships. Data from interviews was coded from the interviews. The two main variables that appeared to characterize the program were:

1. Caring relationships that were further subdivided into (a) those based on trust, competence, and growth based on affiliation and intellectual relationships between teachers and students as well as and peer relationships and (b) relationships based on continuity and support such as the relationship between the high school and the university.

2. Teacher challenges which were very similar to challenges/constraints faced by teachers in high schools of all types including classrooms of students varying levels of academic preparation, the pressures associated with national achievement tests, and difficulties with the educational bureaucracy.

The researchers report that this model "seemed" (p. 53) to have positive effects on the environment as there appeared to be more significant interactions between students and teachers as well as between HECHS and its university partner. The students "seemed" (p. 53) more motivated to attend classes and to move onto college. However, the researchers also noted that as students transitioned to college they still faced the same challenges and frustrations as students from normal high schools regarding their adjustment as the personalized environment is not available in college. Moreover, a small sample size, no statistical analyses, and the subjective nature of the data collection results in the findings of the researchers not generalizable. Thompson and Ongaga suggest additional research look at grades comparisons, how to facilitate adjustment to college, and expand the current findings.