Educational Leadership Comprehensive Exam - Educational Leadership

Educational Leadership

Comprehensive Exam - Educational Leadership

Theoretical and conceptual knowledge

There is increasing interest in educational leadership in this current century. This can be attributed to the belief that making differences in the educational sector and impacting student outcomes requires quality leadership. All over the world, there is increased recognition of the need of schools to have effective and efficient leaders and mangers in order to provide quality education to students. In addition to this, stakeholders in the education sector such as the government and private institutions are continuing to embrace the idea of human resources being their major asset in ensuring they stay competitive in the sector. Therefore they need to have a highly skilled workforce that is well trained and motivated to impart knowledge to the learners. However, these teachers also need highly effective leadership from the senior and middle-level managers. Educational leadership is thus a very important field in ensuring that educational institutions meet their set goals and objectives.

Educational leadership is largely a pluralist field. This means that there are many competing interests in schools and the practices in schools differ greatly. As stated by Bush (2007)

, educational leadership is not just a branch of the management field. It is a highly specialized field of leadership and management that draws on the qualities of the education field and thus in nature is contextualized. Educational leadership focuses on the key goal or education that is to impart knowledge to the students. Therefore it focuses on this goal which applying other principles of management that have been tried and tested years before.

The senior level management of the organization often sets the goals and objectives of educational institutions. In most cases, these are the principal and the trustees or board members, who are the governing body of the school. The roles of these stakeholders who set the goals and objectives of the schools are not mutually exclusive. Rather they complement each other. The senior level management of the school thus focuses on the external and internal pressures of the school such as legislation, expectations from the government and the general public, and expectations of the students and teachers in order to deliver goals that reflect their views and needs. A key issue in developing of goals and objectives as identified by Bush (2007)

is that the senior management faces the challenge of modifying government regulations and policy in order to meet the needs of other stakeholders such as the learners and teachers.

Concepts and theories in educational leadership

The concepts of educational leadership and educational management are presented in different ways. While there is an overlap in the two terminologies, it is thought that educational leadership is linked with times of change within the institution while management is an everyday activity that maintains the educational institution. The author also presents the case for the importance of leadership and management in the success of the organization Cuban, 1988()

Another definition of the concepts of leadership and management is presented by Bush (1998)Day, Harris, and Hadfield (2001)

who in their study of effectiveness of twelve schools created a discussion for the dilemmas in school management and leadership. One of the identified dilemmas relates to how management is linked to effectiveness and efficiency of systems while leadership is focused on motivation and development of the members of the institution.

builds on this and states that leadership is linked to the values or mission of the organization while management is involved with the day-to-day technical and implementation issues in the organization.

There are many theories that can be used in defining and conceptualizing educational leadership. These can be divided into nine categories as defined by Bush (2003)

. These are managerial, participative, transformational, interpersonal, transactional, post-modern, contingency, moral and instructional.

Managerial theories

According to Caldwell (1992)

who argue that managers and leaders in schools are involved in an iterative process of setting goals, identifying needs, setting priorities, planning, budgeting, implementation and evaluation. From these two definitions, the important factor to note is that managerial leadership theories do not focus on vision which is a key component of most other leadership theories. Leithwood, Jantzi, and Steinbach (1999)

, managerial leadership requires leaders to focus on functions, behaviors and tasks in order to facilitate success of the organization. This is similar to the definition provided by Blake and Mouton present one managerial theory and state that educational leadership is a form of managerial grid. The authors identify two dimensions of orientation of leaders as being focused on either productivity (task orientation) or people (relationship orientation). According to the authors, they state that there are five leadership styles that emerge from this grid. These are country club leadership where leaders place more emphasis on the relationships that exist in the organization compared to emphasis on production. The second is authority obedience where they emphasize on power, authority and control and third is impoverished management where the leaders do the bare minimum required to maintain their jobs. The fourth style is non-management of the organization whereby the leaders strive to maintain status quo and go along with anything that is said or done in order to keep their jobs. The last is team management where they emphasize a high concern for both production and interpersonal relationships.

Participative leadership theories

According to Sergiovanni (1984)

, who states that participative leadership strengthens interpersonal bonds between staff, management and the learners and improves learning outcomes, points out a key theme. Leithwood et al. (1999)

, participative leadership theories assume that decisions made in the institution should be made collectively by involving all players. The other assumptions that are common in these theories are that increased participation will increase the effectiveness of the school, justifies democratic principles and that leadership is available to any legitimate stakeholders.

One important participative leadership theory is that developed by Barth who states that leaders should be servants and should participate in building effective learning communities. They do this through coaching, influence and empowering learners. The author states that when the leader in a school creates a plan of action that is developed in collaboration with the members of staff, the plan becomes easy to implement and has the end results of attainment of goals and high motivation of staff members.

The theory developed by Bennis complements that of Barth by arguing that activities such as planning, organizing and monitoring should be done together with the staff. This will lead to greater attention to goals and increased trust, which increases the commitment of staff members to the vision of the leader.

Transformational leadership theories

Caldwell and Spinks (1992)

who state that for transformational leadership to succeed, there is need to gain the commitment of subordinates or followers through participatory activities support this. Leithwood et al. (1999)

and Leithwood (1994)

creates a conceptual framework for transformational leadership that is based on eight key themes. These are building the vision of the school, establishing the goals and objectives, providing stimulation at an intellectual level, modeling of best practices and values, creating expectations of high performance, creating a productivity-oriented culture and fostering participation in decision-making.

Though transformational leadership theories can be thought to be similar to participative leadership theories, there are inherent differences. One is that transformational leadership requires actions at all levels and not just participation in decision-making. This means that principals need to incorporate the staff members in management of physical, financial and human resources. Secondly, in transformational leadership theories, the stakeholders are engaged in the attainment of educational objectives. This is done through charismatic and heroic activities on the part of the leader that raise the leader's power to influence educational outcomes and not just direct them.

One key theory of transformational leadership is that presented by Blanchard (1989)

who state that leaders involve their followers in identifying and addressing challenges within the educational institution by empowering them to share in needs assessment, prioritization and decision-making. This theory is also supported by Conger's theory, which states that leaders attempt to influence others to pursue the established goals and objectives by establishing relationships with those in the organization and creating sufficient gains to their commitment. Leaders also empower their followers to acquire knowledge about situations towards the success of the organization.

Interpersonal leadership theories

Interpersonal leadership theories place emphasis on relationships between people in the organization as the key vessels for success, as presented by Brewer, Ainsworth and Wayne, leaders cannot function alone, they require help from other members of the school and the relationships between the leader and the teachers define the success in achieving set goals and objectives. Another theory as posited by Green which presents 13 characteristics of nurturing schools also presents the importance of relationships between teachers, students, and the management in the success of the school.

Transactional leadership theories

Transactional leadership theories focus on the relationship between teachers and leaders being based on exchange of resources. Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2011(Miller and Miller (2001)

define transactional leadership argue that through this exchange of resource, this style does not produce long-term commitment of the values and vision of the school. Halpin and Croft present one such transactional leadership theory and argue that teachers base their motivation on the amount of recognition and pay their get while at the school )

Post-modern leadership theories

Post-modern leadership theories align themselves with the multiplicity of issues at each school. These theories state that the people in it define each school and that their views are important in defining the success of the school. These theories argue for leaders to respect and give due attention to teachers within the schools and to avoid unnecessary disrespect. One such theory is as stated by Starratt (2001)

who argues that a consultative, inclusive and participatory leadership style is better in achieving the goals of any educational institution.

Contingency leadership theories

Contingency leadership theories accept the dynamic nature of schools and that there are advantages of each leadership style depending on the situation. Hanson presents one situational leadership theory that states that the leader is required to adopt the leadership style that is best suited for the problems, needs and goals of the organization. Yukl (2002)

argues that in the situational leadership theory, leaders have a complex job and each situation is highly unpredictable. Therefore, they cannot rely on a standard set of responses to the problems and needs of the school. Hersey and Blanchard (1969)

present a similar theory that argues for the balance between task and relationships to be evaluated in order to gauge the best leadership style for the school.

Moral leadership theories

These theories assume that leadership is focused on the values, ethics and beliefs of the leaders themselves. It follows the old adage to 'lead by example'. Sergiovanni (1984)

, who argues that for a school to succeed, the values and beliefs instilled in the teachers must be central to those of the leader, presents one such theory. The author also argues that leaders have a moral responsibility to make teachers feel motivated and part of the school.

Instructional leadership theories

Instructional leadership as defined by Bush, 2003(Southworth (2002)

conducted a qualitative study on heads of small schools in both England and Wales and found that the three most effective strategies in improving learning and teaching were monitoring, modeling and promoting professional dialogue. These three strategies are the foundation of instructional leadership whereby the school's key activities which are teaching and learning are focused upon. However, these theories fail to appreciate the values of aspects of school life such as socialization, self-esteem, student welfare and sports Southworth (2002)

is where the learning and teaching environment and themes such as student growth are given more emphasis. These theories focus on productivity in achieving educational outcomes. )

. These theories present an authoritative commitment that requires leaders to focus on improving effectiveness of learning and teaching.

One such theory is that presented by Favol, which stresses that leaders in schools perform five functions, which are planning, organizing, controlling, commanding and coordinating. The theory states that there is an important chain of command and allocation of authority that allows school leaders to delegate, have authority, discipline teachers, order and command them. Gulick and Urwick then expanded these five roles to be planning, budgeting, reporting, organizing, coordinating, directing and staffing. Their theory also emphasized the importance of authority in ensuring the success of the school Morris & Morris, 2000()

McGregor's theory X also supports instructional leadership. The author states that human beings inherently dislike work thus they must be coerced, directed, controlled and even threatened in order to perform. Therefore there is need for the leaders in the school to exercise their roles in this direction in order to achieve the organizational goals and objectives.

Green's thirteen characteristics of nurturing schools

Green's theory presents 13 essential characteristics of schools that perform well. These characteristics are presented in four key themes. These are student-teacher relationships, professionalism among administration, staff and faculty members, the general school and classroom environment and how students feel about themselves Morris & Morris, 2000()

Student-teacher relationships

In the theme of student-teacher relationships, three essential characteristics are defined. The first is that of trust that exists mutually and creates positive interaction between the students and the teachers. The second is that teachers need to have an in-depth knowledge of the students' lives both inside and outside the school and the last characteristics is teachers caring for the students Morris & Morris, 2000()

Professionalism among administration, staff and faculty

In this theme, three characteristics are defined. The first is that of a sense of caring among the school's administration, staff and faculty. This is followed by the need for mutual respect for self-actualization and the last characteristic is teachers being passionate about the subjects they teach and continuously developing their knowledge and skills Morris & Morris, 2000()

General school and classroom environment

In this theme, four characteristics are listed. The first is a sense of family or community in the school. This is represented by collaboration among the professionals and respect between teachers and students. The second is that individual differences are valued thus bringing respect and fostering a collaborative environment. The third is recognition of the presence of a wide range of talent and the need for individuals to be empowered. Last is the school involving the larger community in educational outcomes Morris & Morris, 2000()

Students' attitude and feelings about themselves

In this theme, the last three characteristics are defined. These are that students accept themselves and have a sense of self-worth, they are safe and involved in the learning activities and that they value each other Morris & Morris, 2000()

How the theory adds to the understanding of educational leadership

Green's theory is one of the most comprehensive themes of educational leadership that has been developed. It is thought to represent a cross over between the nine categories of educational leadership theories earlier identified because it can fit into all categories. This is because it emphasizes the importance of interpersonal relationship, participative leadership, transformational and transactional leadership and focusing on the main goal of schools which are learning and teaching. The theory goes beyond the scope of others that advocate for participatory decision making on the part of faculty and staff members and also includes the community in defining the educational outcomes and working towards them. This is seen in the emphasis of knowing students' lives both inside and outside school and involving the larger community in the school's activities Morris & Morris, 2000()

From this theory, leadership can be understood as a careful process involving influence and that there is need for clear values and a vision to be set by the leader. In this case, the theory advocates for teachers to be passionate about their subjects and to continuously search for methods of advancing their skills and knowledge. This is important in ensuring that the staff and faculty are committed to a better future for the school, the learners and other stakeholders such as the community Morris & Morris, 2000()

The theory also suggests that each school environment is complex and diverse. This is why it advocates for the school leadership to create a sense of community or family in the school. This fosters a greater understanding of how the school environment is and thus enables the leaders to create their vision appropriately. This also ensures that the individual stakeholders within the school who often have a common purpose, share in the vision of the school's leader and seek attainment of mutual goals. Personal sacrifices are also seen to be important since the theory advocates for individual differences in the school to be valued and respected Morris & Morris, 2000()

Practical application

Introduction

The link between theory and practice is often thought to be direct whereby the theory provides systematic information on how to solve problems. However, theories are not designed as recipes or systematic statements for addressing the problems. They simply provide structure to the decision making process that informs actual solving of the problem. Therefore there often are problems associated with application of the theory. This paper will focus on the transformational theory of educational leadership and how it has been applied in different settings.

Transformational leadership is whereby the motivation and performance of subordinates is enhanced through different ways. These include improving the relationship between the leader and the subordinates, improving the sense of identity for both leaders and subordinates, collective identity of individualism within the organization, the leader acting as a role model and challenging the followers.

Application of the transformational leadership theory

The transformational leadership theory has been applied in different settings in the education sector with varied results. The four key themes in application of transformational leadership are idealized influence where the leader articulates their vision clearly and motivates followers individually towards achievement of the vision, intellectual stimulation through critical thinking, individualized consideration by appreciating individualism and self-actualization, and inspirational motivation.

Application in instructional leadership

According to the study conducted in the U.S. By Harrison, 2011(Harrison (2011)

, there were positive effects of application of transformational leadership at the student level. The authors evaluated the application of transformational leadership by the instructors or teachers. The teachers were conveniently sampled to allow the researcher to work around time constraints. Teachers were randomized to transformational and transactional leadership and once they had been trained on the leadership styles, the students were then asked to use a multi-factor leadership questionnaire to evaluate their teachers. The researchers used other scales such as the revised cognitive learning indicators scale, affective learning scale, teacher credibility scale, student communication satisfaction scale and social desirability scale to evaluate other aspects of the teachers. The combined questionnaire to collect data was sent to 167 students and 112 responses were received. They used inferential statistics to analyze the data. Multiple linear regression analyses were run on the data )

The researchers found that student cognitive learning was improved by transformational leadership behaviors. This meant that transformational behaviors help to improve how students understand and feel about the learning activities. Therefore the students were intellectually stimulated to accept the challenges and create problems towards promoting innovation and better educational outcomes. The study also found that student affective learning which is defined by how students are individually accepted and mentored improves with transformational leadership. Transformational leadership helped to create interpersonal relationships between the students and the instructors which helped the instructors establish the goals for each student based on the individual needs of the students. Students were thus more enthusiastic about the learning outcomes and strived hard to achieve them Harrison, 2011()

Transformational leadership helped to improve the credibility of instructors. This was because the transformational leadership behaviors support the students in their learning and thus they are able to command respect from their students which translates into better articulation of expectations, and a deeper commitment towards the shared goals of learning. The last finding was that transformational leadership helped to improve the satisfaction of students regarding communication. Where transformational leadership was applied, students were able to communicate better with the teachers or instructors. This was as a result of the instructors using a clear motivational language to communicate their vision to the students and thus communication satisfaction improved considerably Harrison, 2011()

The findings of the study showed that transformational leadership has better outcomes compared to transactional leadership. The study applied the transformational leadership theory as it is and there were not challenges in the application. All four aspects of transformational leadership -- idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individual consideration -- were well articulated in the application which contributed to its success Harrison, 2011()

Application in Turkey

In a qualitative study conducted by Balyer, 2012(Balyer (2012)

, the researchers used qualitative methods to gain knowledge into how different schools had applied transformational leadership. Their study used ethnographic methods which explored themes such as sharing of culture, beliefs, behaviors, and language among teachers. The study was conducted in Turkey and semi-structured in-depth interviews were also conducted. Using a sample of 30 teachers of equal gender representation in six schools, the study used a purposive sampling method in order to gauge the best perceptions, problems, behaviors, needs and context relevant to their study objectives. Content analysis was then run on the findings to analyze them and create themes )

The study found that where the school principals used a transformational leadership style, the teachers felt that the leaders were putting the needs of subordinates before their own. This helped to create motivation and also created an idealistic thought that the leaders were not using their own positions for their own personal gain. In these circumstances, the leaders demonstrated high moral standards which are described as being important in transformational leadership. They also showed that they could be trusted and respected since they showed respect and trust for their subordinates. The leaders or principals also showed motivation and strived to inspire their subordinates by developing a clear vision for the school, showing their commitment to this vision, communicating expectations, and demonstrating team spirit and participation. Collaboration is of extreme importance in the transformational leadership theory and since the schools also fostered a collaborative environment, they were able to achieve the high academic standards set and everywhere, teamwork was very important Balyer, 2012()

The principals also used a technique of intellectual stimulation. This is where they stimulated their subordinates to be creative and innovative by allowing them to participate in decision making and encouraging them to make assumptions, help to prioritize problem and defined approaches to the problems. In the transformational leadership theory, it is important for leaders to include their followers in decision making and problem solving. Critical thinking is defined as one way of ensuring participation by allowing the followers to brainstorm with the leader. It creates motivation for the followers to perform better in the school environment since they are able to see the goals and objectives clearly and they remain open to new ideas, flexible and willing to implement new decisions made. This helps to reduce resistance to change Balyer, 2012()

The application of transformational leadership in Turkey follows the theory and applies all four key aspects towards the success of the schools. As a result of this, there was improvement in educational outcomes in the schools alongside other improvements such as increased motivation and morale of staff and faculty and progress towards achievement of the set goals and objectives Balyer, 2012()

Application in Pakistan

The transformational leadership theory has also been applied in universities in Pakistan. In the study conducted by Mir & Abbasi, 2012(Mir and Abbasi (2012)

, the researchers used a correlational study design with ethnographic and quantitative methods. Twenty universities were chosen and twenty participants in each university were selected at random. The researchers used a multi-factor leadership questionnaire to measure the performance of transformational leadership. They then run linear and multiple-linear regressions on the findings in order to find out the relationship between transformational leadership and emotional intelligence. The elements of emotional intelligence that were being evaluated were self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skills. These five elements are very similar to the four key aspects of transformation leadership which are idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individual consideration )

The study tried to evaluate how emotional intelligence and transformational leadership apply in the universities in Pakistan. The study found that there is a positive significant relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. This stems from the evidence that emotional intelligence arouses leadership qualities that exhibit qualities similar to those in transformational leadership. Similarly, transformational leadership was shown to have a positive significant relationship with emotional intelligence. This was seen in the evidence that transformational leadership stimulates emergence of the five elements of emotional intelligence Mir & Abbasi, 2012()

These findings suggest that while transformational leadership is important in stimulating emotional intelligence in students, there is also an impact of the elements of emotional intelligence to the transformational leader. This means that leaders and followers play an important role in ensuring that the organization succeeds. When the leaders accept to be transformational leaders, they play a pivotal role in stimulating emotional intelligence. Similarly, students have a pivotal role to play by developing transformational leaders in their instructors by challenging them to be so Mir & Abbasi, 2012()

The findings of the study also suggest that workshops and trainings are important in promoting emotional intelligence among both the students and the teachers since these are important to implementation of transformational leadership. This study, therefore, adds an important note that educational leaders need to apply the four aspects of transformational leadership (idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individual consideration) to both the students and teachers. This is somewhat an extension to what is provided in the transformational leadership theory since it only implies that these four aspects need to be stimulated in the subordinates or followers. Therefore trying to stimulate these in the teachers as well, who are essentially the leaders in this case, is a different side of the theory which has not been evaluated before. This can be shown to achieve better results by developing a better and deeper understanding of the transformational leadership theory and allowing the teachers to understand their own emotions before being able to motivate their students. A leadership style that is transformation in nature thus emerges whereby the leader needs to embrace emotional intelligence in order to achieve the desired outcomes of transformational leadership Mir & Abbasi, 2012()