Egyptian influence on Judaism and Christianity

Egyptian Influence on Judaism and Christianity

Egyptian influence

The issue of the relationship between Egyptian cultural history and the histories of Judaism and Christianity is one that is mired in controversy. This controversy is also linked to various interpretations of the Biblical texts and to the view that has emerged in recent years that the Bible is more myth and fiction than actual historical fact. While this view does not invalidate the theological integrity of the history of both Judaism and Christianity, it does suggest a link with the historical and cultural realities of the past and with the way that various historical and religious contexts impacted the development of both Judaism and Christianity.

The view that the origins of both Judaism and Christianity are linked to other religions and to the dominance of the Egyptian culture, among others, is a view that is increasingly supported by scholarly research and evidence. As a study by David Rohl states,

Biblical Archaeology was born in Egypt with the search for Joseph and the Seven-year Famine, the Ten Plagues, Moses and the Exodus. However, the unfortunate reality is that, after more than 150 years of excavations, not one scrap of archaeological evidence for the Israelite Sojourn in Egypt has comes to light.

( Rohl)

Views such as the above are contested by many other scholars. However, many studied tend to suggest that much of the origins of Judaism and Christianity may have been influenced and possibly 'borrowed' from the dominant civilizations of the time- such as Egypt. While it is not the intention of this paper to delve into the convoluted and often obscure arguments about the origins of Judaism and Christianity, what this paper will attempt to do is to provide some insight into the way that Egyptian civilization influenced the development and content of Judaism and Christianity.

This type of analysis and investigation into the influences on religions has become even more important in the light of recent scholarship, which has found very little hard factual evidence to support Biblical texts. As Rohl states;

As Old Testament specialist Professor Thomas L. Thompson of Copenhagen University puts it: to believe in a Bible based on real historical events is 'not only dubious but wholly ludicrous'. He is supported in his views, to a lesser or greater extent, by scholars throughout academia -- even in Israel. ( Rohl)

Many scholars agree that there is "…really is no unambiguous evidence for any of the biblical characters and events prior to the 9th century BC." (Rohl)

However, this in itself does not necessarily invalidate Biblical texts. What is clear for many diverse sources in the literature is that there was a greater degree of influence from civilizations like the Egyptians than was previously thought.

2. Egyptian influence on Judaism and Christianity

The common Biblical view of the relationship between the Israelite and Egyptian culture is as follows:

The Bible tells us that when Jacob and his family migrated from Asia to Egypt, they were settled in "the land of Rameses" and that they became property owners there (Genesis 47:11, 27). Eventually, the Israelites were used as slave laborers to build the city of Rameses (Exodus 1:11), and when they left after 430 years (Exodus 12:40), they departed from Rameses (Exodus 12:37). From these references, we can conclude that the Israelites spent the years of the Egyptian Sojourn in and around Rameses.

(Is there evidence that the Israelites once lived in Egypt as the Bible says? )

However, this commonly accepted view of events is questioned by many modern scholars who assert that we should separate myth and fact in our understanding of Biblical history. In particular, scholars also question the accepted view of the relationship between Egyptian culture and the development of Judaism and Christianity. In this regard many studies suggest that the influence and impact of the Egyptian culture on the content and the structure of both Judaism and Christianity has not been fully acknowledged and understood. .As one article on this topic notes;

How much of the doctrine and ritual of Egypt were imported into Judaism by Moses is a question by no means easy to settle. Of Egyptian theology proper, or the doctrine of the gods, we find no trace in the Pentateuch. Instead of the three orders of deities we have Jehovah; instead of the images and pictures of the gods, we have a rigorous prohibition of idolatry; instead of Osiris and Isis, we have a Deity above all worlds and behind all time, with no history, no adventures, no earthly life.

(Influence of Egypt on Judaism and Christianity)

The above quotation raises some very important issues. On the one hand, there are those who see an extreme difference between the religion that Moses propounded and propagated and the Egyptian civilization in which the 'new ' religion of Mosaic Judaism first arose. In other words, there is a commonly accepted view that the religion of Moses was in fact very different and therefore was not influenced by the religion and the culture of Egypt.

Moses gives no account of the judgment of souls after death; he tells nothing of the long journey and multiform experiences of the next life according to the Egyptians, nothing of a future resurrection and return to the body…His severe monotheism was very different from the minute characterization of gods in the Egyptian Pantheon.

(Influence of Egypt on Judaism and Christianity)

However, this view of the essential difference between the origin of both Judaism and Christianity is strongly contradicted by many contemporary investigations of the subject. An extensive and insightful study of this topic is Gods of Our Fathers: The Memory of Egypt in Judaism and Christianity by Gabriel ( 2002). In this work the author posits a very different view to the accepted notion of the essential difference between the origins of Judaism and Christianity and Egyptian culture and influence. This also suggests that Egyptian culture had a much greater influence on these religions than is commonly acknowledged.

In understanding this argument one also has to bear in mind the difference between earlier Yahwehism and Judaism . As Gabriel (2002) notes:

The Judaism of the sixth century B.C.E. was a considerably different creed in important respects than it had been when first introduced by Moses six centuries earlier just as modern Judaism, the beneficiary of almost two thousand years of ethical introspection and commentary, is considerably different from the legalistic Judaism of Ezra. Like all religions, Yahwehism changed in response to the historical circumstances with which it was forced to deal. (Gabriel 64)

This therefore refers to the influence that Egyptian thought had on Mosaic Yahwehism. Mosaic theology however is fundamental to and the core of modern Judaism.

Scholars are also clear in their view that the larger and more economically influential Egyptian civilization would most certainly have had an influence on the development of the Judaic faith and religion. As one commentator notes;

There were contacts between Egypt and the Syria-Palestine region as early as the Middle Kingdom, around 2000 BC, when Egypt exercised economic, if not political, domination over the Levant. It is in this period that the migration of the Hebrew patriarchs to and from Egypt belong (Gen. 12:10ff).

(Kline)

3. Who were the Israelites?

A common definition of the term Israelite is as follows: "Israelite: An inhabitant of the Northern Kingdom of ancient Israel. Also used to denote the members of the Twelve Tribes of Israel, made up of the descendants of Jacob." (Szczepanski) However, the common view of a unified group known as the Israelites is questioned by historical facts. As one commentator notes; "Archaeological evidence is indicative that Judaism, during its formative period, assimilated cultic beliefs acquired from neighboring peoples, and is, therefore, not the uniquely original religion that religious purists would have us believe." (Desborough)

The actual ancient Hebrew people were semi-nomadic herdsman and herdsmen. The most likely originators of the Israelites were a people referred to by the Egyptians as the Apiru or Habiru. They are described as a "…wandering group of Asiatics in Palestine and Syria with whom the Egyptians were familiar." (Gabriel 65) Gabriel (2002) also draws attention to the similarity between the words "Habiru" and ?Hebrew', which has led scholars to conclude that "… the Habiru were the Israelites of the Bible appearing for the first time in a historical source outside the Old Testament, a source that was at least two hundred years earlier than any known Israelite literature." (Gabriel 65) Furthermore, this designation did not refer to a specific ethic group but rather refers to as class of wandering people in Palestine and Syria. This again tends to go against the myth of as unified ethic group. Research also suggests that the Israelites entered into in Egypt most probably during the New Kingdom approximately around the time of Amenhotep III (1417-1378 B.C.E.) (Gabriel 68)

As Kline also notes, the contact between the Hebrew or Jewish people and the Egyptian civilization was to increase. This can be seen in many Biblical references; for example, David was given political asylum by an unnamed Pharaoh (1 Kings 11: 14-22); Solomon married an Egyptian princess (1 Kings 3:1) and many other instances. . This was to lead to the inevitable interaction and cross -- cultural pollination between the cultures. Kline states that; " No wonder that such a large number of Egyptian loan words, phrases and intellectual ideas should be preserved in the Old Testament, along with a large number of idiomatic expressions, and two Egyptian units of measure" (Kline). However, while cultural interaction and the adoption of various phrases and words is not denied by most scholars, what is contested and debated is the extent to which this cultural interaction influenced and impacted the development of the religious foundations of both Judaism and Christianity.

4. How Egypt influenced customs and practices; fact vs. myth

There are numerous examples in the literature that refer to a more extensive cultural intersection and interaction with the Egyptian civilization. One can refer to the view that the name of the Divine Unity in this regard. The Egyptian term NUK PU NUK, "I am the I am," is identical to the meaning of Jehovah or Jahveh in Exodus. (Influence of Egypt on Judaism and Christianity) This correspondence between the two terms is not strange if we accept the view put forward by Gabriel (2002) that early Judaism was deeply influenced by the radical changes in Egyptian theology that was brought about by Akhenaten. This is a view that will be explored in detail in this paper, as it implies a much greater influence on both Judaic and Christian origins that is commonly held to be the case.

There are many other examples of the influence of Egyptian culture that are clearly evident in easily Judaism and Christian thinking. Some critics refer to the Jewish ritual of circumcision as having African and Egyptian origins."The rite of circumcision was probably adopted by the Jews from the Egyptians, who received it from the natives of Africa." (Influence of Egypt on Judaism and Christianity ) However, Gabriel ( 2002) and others point out that while circumcision was a practiced to some extent in Egyptian culture it had no religious significance. Nevertheless, it is an indication of how the Jewish people may have adopted and incorporated certain Egyptian cultural practices into their own cultural and religious practices.

Other cultural influences include speculation that the Cherubim of the Jewish faith were inspired by Egyptian culture. Some see a link between this religious symbol and the Sphinx. "The Sphinx was the solemn sentinel, placed to watch the temple and the tomb, as the Cherubim watched the gates of Paradise after the expulsion of Adam." (Influence of Egypt on Judaism and Christianity) Another similarity that has been discerned is that, "The Egyptians had in their temples a special interior sanctuary, more holy than the rest. So the Jews had their Holy of Holies, into which only the high-priest went, separated by a veil from the other parts of the Temple." (Influence of Egypt on Judaism and Christianity)

Egyptian influence can also be found in many Christian rituals and ceremonies. For example, the use of the gold ring as a sign of marriage fidelity and love was a custom practiced by the Egyptians. It was seen as a token and as symbol of trust."Clemens tells us that this custom was derived by the Christians from the Egyptians." (Influence of Egypt on Judaism and Christianity) There are many other ritual correspondences between Christian and Egyptian culture; for example, the shaven heads of Catholic sand Egyptian priests and;

The Episcopal minister's linen surplice for reading the Liturgy is taken from the dress of obligation, made of linen, worn by the priest in Egypt. Two thousand years before the Pope assumed to hold the keys, there was an Egyptian priest at Thebes with the title of "Keeper of the two doors of Heaven." (Influence of Egypt on Judaism and Christianity),

However, these correspondences do not go to the root of the matter- which is the extent of Egyptian religious and theological influence on both Judaism and Christianity

4.1. Akhenaten

Akhenaten, also known as the Egyptian heretic king, broke away for the views of the past in his renovation of Egyptian theology. His"… theology broke completely with traditional Egyptian religion, setting in its place a notion of god and man that was radically different from anything Egypt had witnessed previously." (Gabriel 190) it is the influence of this king that many experts claim has gone largely unrecognized as a primary and fundamental influence on the development of Mosaic Judaism and later on Christianity.

The common myth is that Moses was instrumental in developing a theology that was monotheistic and which opposed to the polytheism of other cultures. This is an indentifying characteristic of both Judaism and Christianity. However, the facts would suggest that the beginnings of the monotheistic view of spirituality in Judaism have its origins with the Egyptians, and particularly with Akhenaten. This view states that in reality Moses was influenced by the example set by the Egyptians. This point-of-view is discussed at length by Gabriel ( 2002). "Remarkably, the principles of Akhenaten's new theology bore a strong resemblance to the theological principles of Mosaic Judaism which, like Christianity, declared itself to be a revealed faith with no historical antecedents." (Gabriel 190)

Other sources also suggest the strong influence of Akhenaten's theology on Judaism. Kline, for example, states that, " & #8230;can there be any doubt that it was Pharaoh Akhenaten's Hymn to the Aten, written in the 14th century BC, that inspired Psalms 104:24 in the Old Testament?" ( Kline). He proceeds to provide a comparison which seems to show very strong similarities and which tends to suggest a direct influence on Hebrew thought.

Another argument that is used to suggest the influence of the Egyptian forms of theology on Judaism is that figures like Joseph were a prominent and integral part of the Egyptian society. "As befits a talented Habiru, the Bible tells of Joseph rising in pharaoh's court as an interpreter of dreams. Soon, he becomes a vizier, perhaps governing the Delta, and among the most powerful men in all Egypt. "(Gabriel 69). It therefore follows he would have imbibed and integrated Egyptian thought into his life and the lives of the Jews.

There can be no doubt that every high official of the Egyptian court was well aware of pharaoh's new religion so that at the very least Joseph, along with his tribe, would have known of the beliefs of the Atenist faith. (Gabriel 70)

Scholars like Gabriel assert that "…the Israelites assimilated to Egyptian culture is almost beyond dispute." (Gabriel 70) One should also bear in mind that many of the Biblical stories that have shaped both Judaic and Christian beliefs have been shown to be based on myths; for example, the story of the way that Moses was found as a baby. As Gabriel ( 2002) states, the story of Moses' discovery by the daughter of pharaoh is a regurgitation of a common mythical structure throughout the ancient world.

We have no knowledge of where in Egypt Moses was born. The claim that he was set adrift in a basket on the waters of the Nile to be found by pharaoh's daughter and raised at court can safely be ignored. This story is clearly a fabri- cation and contains elements that are common to the birth myths of many other heroes of the ancient world. (Gabriel 77)

However, there is a general consensus that the link between Egyptian culture and the development of Judaism can possibly be attributed to Moses. This is due to the fact that he was acculturated to Egyptian life and "…could just as easily have possessed knowledge of Egyptian religious beliefs." (Gabriel 81)

A further indication of the influence of Egyptian culture on Judaism, as well as on Christian beliefs, is the close similarity between the God of Akhenaten and the God of Moses.

Yahweh and Aten are gods of isolated glory who are their own wonders. It is their greatness and power that compel man to worship them and the threat of divine punishment is ever present. Neither offers a cosmology of justice or human meaning that can be comprehended by man. Absent are the old humane cosmologies that revealed the ways of god to man and made human life meaningful by explaining man's place in the universe. Yahweh and Aten are cold and remote, their motives and purposes known only to themselves or their prophets, Akhenaten and Moses. (Gabriel 91)

The above is quoted at length as it clearly indicates a telling and important link between the theology of Egypt and the origins do both the Judaic and Christian belief systems.

4.2. Christianity

Reference has also been made to the way that Egyptian culture was to influence Christianity. It is perhaps important to outline very briefly the differences between Judaism and Christianity. Christianity begins with the belief in the birth of Jesus Christ who is the Messiah or son of God and who has come to save humanity and usher in a new era of compassion and understanding. Christianity arose in the "Jewish milieu of 1st-century Palestine" and "quickly spread through the Mediterranean world and in the 4th century became the official religion of the Roman Empire." (the Roots of Judaism and Christianity)